（第7章）社会的包摂

ほとんどの国は、3つのSD目標（経済開発、社会的包摂、環境保全）を達成できていない。経済的に豊かな国であっても、収入・裕福・パワーなどの格差があり、民族・宗教・人種・性差・出身などによる差別を抱えている。

社会的包摂の3つの側面

1. The first dimension of social inclusion addresses income and wealth inequality.
2. The second addresses discrimination through legal channels: laws in many parts of the world continue to discriminate against some groups.
3. The third involves discrimination through cultural and social norms.

教科書では、社会的包摂に向けて6つの重要な倫理的アプローチが記されている。そのうち6つ目に挙げられているものは、基本的人権。

The Age of Sustainable Development

The human rights philosophy holds that every human being on the planet has basic human rights that must be protected by the society. There are five basic categories of such rights: political, civil. economic, social and cultural rights. This approach says that societies must organize themselves, perhaps through taxation and provision of public services, to secure individuals' rights to health, education and means of livelihood. The human rights approach is the dominant framework of the current international system of nations.

• 教育と健康は、経済学では「価値財」とみなされる。
• The focus on meeting universal basic needs can be justified through the lens of human rights or through the lens of utilitarianism. We sometimes call basic need "merit good." Merit goods are those goods and services that should be accessible by all individuals in society irrespective of an individual's ability to pay. Health and education are both widely judged to be merit goods.
• 日本の2013年度公財政支出教育費用は22.9兆円で、行政費の14%、GDPの4.8%を占める（文部科学省2016）。教育の質を保ちつつ効率的かつ平等に供給・助成するうえで、この水準が妥当であるかが問われ、その内訳は次の通り（日本教育社会学会編 2018:664）：学校教育費80%（うち3% ECEC, 初等中等教育73%, 高等教育24％）, 社会教育費7%, 教育行政費13%。
• 政府が教育費を負担する根拠として、教育は準公共財ないし価値財であって、外部効率が存在すること、長期的観点からの所得再分配のためにも教育の機会均等が求められることなどが挙げられる。日本の義務教育は、教職員人件費 1/3が国、2/3が都道府県*が負担（ibid: 665）。*地方交付税交付金が充当されるが、一般財源のため使途制限がなく、義務教育への実支出額は都道府県・市町村の間で差が生じている。
• 高校は、公立の場合、設置者である地方公共団体が大部分を負担。私立の場合、国庫補助である都道府県事業費から。
• 大学に対する政府支出は、国庫負担が中心。国立大学には運営交付金が、私立大学には私立学校振興助成法にもとづく経常費補助金が交付されている。

経済格差を広げる3つの要因：

1. The first force is the rising gap in earning between high-skilled and low-skilled workers.
2. The second is the increased use of robotics and various information technologies.
3. The third is the political system.

社会的分断（Divided Societies） 

• Social inclusion aims for broad-based prosperity, for eliminating discrimination, for equal protection under the laws, for enabling everybody to meet basic needs, and for high social mobility (p.232).
• Ethnic diversity is sometimes measured along linguistic lines...what is called ethnolinguistic fractionalization, a measure of similarity or difference in the spoken languages in a population. When fractionalization is high, inequality is often high as well, with some groups dominating others politically and economically.
• So too are the political responses, the extent to which power is used to reduce inequalities (e.g., through tax-and-transfer policies) or the extent to which power is used to exacerbate inequalities (e.g., through displacing indigenous populations from traditional lands). Inequality is therefore a legacy of power, history, economy, and individual differences, amplified or diminished through the power of the state (p.238).

社会的分断を越境する: 他者と出会いなおす想像力

格差の克服に向けて

1. One key factor is the rising gap in earnings between high-skilled and low-skilled workers. The returns to education have increased markedly, leaving those with less education behind. The rising earnings premium to education probably reflect the combined forces of globalization and technological changes, both of which have been to the disadvantage of less-educated workers.
2. use of robotics, advanced data management systems, and other information technologies.
3. the political system.