Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning, Chapter 10

Covid-19でオンライン教育が世界中で激増していることから、敢えて日本語で. 

成人教育・生涯学習ハンドブック――理論と実践

第10章：遠隔教育とオープンラーニング

1.遠隔教育とOLの特質

　「教育、遠隔教育は世界的に実施されているが、その概念たるや150年以上も昔のものであり、そのため教授学的にも技術的にも時代遅れになっている（Peters 2009:226 In Jarvis）」

　「遠隔教育」という用語の意味について、最も徹底できた議論の一つに、キーガンが挙げられる。次のような特徴を持つ（Keegan 1990:28-47）：

• 教師と学習者が、半永久的に離れているところに成立
• 教材制作や学生支援において、教育組織の影響を受ける
• 専門技術的なメディアを活用
• 双方向プロセス
• 学習グループは半永久的に存在しない

　本書では、遠隔教育を次のような形態の教育と定義する。遠隔教育においては通常、技術的なメディアを通じて学習者に組織化された学習機会が提供される。一般的に学習者は個別に学習し、時間的・空間的にも教師から離れたところにいる。・・・Web発展により「教師」という考え方は教育にとって不要となりつつあり、教育と学習は今や明確に区分されうる現象が見られる。・・・遠隔学習とは、教育機関を通じて提供・認証されるもので、Webで提供される学習機会なども「経験学習歴認証制度（Assessment of Prior Experiential Learning: APEL）」を通じて、認証される。

　Webで提供される学習機会は、教育機関の制御を超えた、広範な学習の可能性を切り拓く。

　対面式の授業が高額になるにつれ・・・教育機関の減少と同時に大学教員の減少という結果に行き着くだろう。実際、教育機関の吸収合併」はすでに起こっている。

　遠隔教育の理論家ホルムバーグ（Holmberg 1989）は、遠隔教育を指導的で講義中心的な対話の一形態と捉え、7つの基本原理を示した：

1. 教授者・学習者集団の間に、個人的関係が創り出される
2. 質の高い自習用教材が必要
3. 演習の中で、知的な喜びが感じられる
4. 雰囲気、言葉遣い、習慣が、友好的な会話を促進
5. 学習者が受けるメッセージは、口調は会話的で、用意に理解でき、覚えられるもの
6. 遠隔教育では常に、会話的なアプローチが活用される
7. 組織的学習には、計画と指導が必要

　学習者は実際、遠隔教育コースで多くの情報を欲しており、その結果、学ぶべきことをたくさん獲得していると感じているようである。自ら学費を支払っている場合、「その価格に見合うものを」と。遠隔教育がe-ラーニング用の教材に関わる特色の一つに、伝統的な教育・学習活動よりも遥かに学際的な教育アプローチが用いられていることが挙げられる。

　ギデンズ（Giddens 1990）は、後期近代としての現代社会の特徴を、産業・資本主義的特質、空間と時間の再編、脱埋め込みメカニズムとエクスパートシステム、再帰性、自己責任。

1-1. 空間と時間の再編

　「前近代社会では、空間と時間は通常一致するもので、大多数の人々にとって、またほとんどの点において、社会生活の様相は『そこに存在すること』、つまり特定の空間に限定化された活動によって支配されている（Giddens 1990:18）」。・・・今日、教師は自らの授業を録画し、学生は都合のいい時間や場所で、授業を受けることができる。学習経験は、もはや直接的・対面的な経験より、むしろ間接的・二次的な経験となっている。・・・その結果、定義上、遠隔教育（distance education）は、空間と時間の再編（distanciationギデンズの造語）プロセスを象徴するものとなった。

1-2. 脱埋め込みメカニズム

　「脱埋め込み（disembedding）」とは、特定の空間に限定された社会関係を抜き取り、それらをグローバルな空間と時間の文脈に移植することである。・・・遠隔教授機関は脱埋め込み的で・・・もはや場所ではなく、プロセスであり、システムである。その教育的な提供物は、いまや購入者に特定の学習を提供することを保障された製品である。

1-3. 省察的学習

　近代の再帰性（reflexivity of modernity）とは、社会的実践についての絶え間ない考察と再考察をともなう。「その実践についての新たに得られる情報にもとづいて、修正される（Giddens 1990:38）」結果、物事の伝統的手法は、その実践を継続するために十分な正統的根拠とはならない。・・・ハイテク生産物は、いっそう安価になり、今後は市場規模も膨らんでいく。ただ単位認定のコストが高いため、学習者の中には今後さらに数年間、自らの学習に十分な認知を得られない人も出てくるだろう。

　他方、ここでの関心は一層多く省察的学習に注がれる。学習者が自分自身の時間にマイペースで取り組み、自分の空間で、提供された学習教材にじっくりと省察できる機会は増えている。・・・遠隔教授では、省察的学習を奨励するために演習を実施できるし、また実施すべきである。ただし、e-ラーニングだと学習者の自律性がはるかに大きなものとなりうるので、その省察的学習は同様に批判的学習でもあるべき。

1-4. 個別化

　個人は、自分自身の時間に独自の方法で自分のやりたいことができ、そしてある程度、自己決定的な個人になることができると感じる。そのため、遠隔教育は、人々が個別に自分の場所と時間を使ってマイペースで教育プログラムを受講する機会を提供することになる。

2. 遠隔教育からOLへの継続的発展

　遠隔教育は産業資本主義とITの産物。ここでグローバル資本主義の問題も扱う。

2-1. 高度資本主義

　現在、遠隔教育に見いだされうる3つの特性（民営化、商業化、競争）は元来、資本主義に内在する特性である。・・・UKのOUのように大学のように発展しても、国家が依然として部分的に教育提供に関わっている。だが、近年増加する遠隔教育の「大学」は完全に私学であり、中には提供コースの単位認定を得たものもある（Jarvis 2001b）。

　資本主義的市場は競争市場である。市場のレトリックは、一番質の良い商品が生き残るというが、実際には販売している製品の質にかかわらず、最も強力で規模の大きな組織だけが生き残っている。遠隔教育はプログラムの価値について宣伝しているものの、買い手は学ぶコースの特性だけでなく、修了までの機関や修了後に授与される資格を・・・知りたいと願っている。・・・その結果、製品の質や将来性にかかわらず、首尾よく実行できなかった機関が負けて、撤退を強いられるのである。そのため、小さな機関は犠牲になり、大きな機関がより大きくなっていく。規模の小さい機関が市場にニッチを見いださない限り、それらの結末は自明。革新的で小さな機関は、より大きな機関に合併吸収される。

　いったん教育が市場を取り込むと、論理的帰結として、大きな機関はさらに大きく、それにともないほぼ確実に、様々な形態の文化的帝国主義、言説による覇権、多くの地域教育の衰退などが生じる。

2-2. 情報技術

　デジタル時代には、遠隔教育におけるもう一つ新たな発展が生まれた。それは「空間－時間の再編」の別側面である「空間－時間の圧縮」と関連づけて捉えることができる（Harvey 1990:240-259）。この「圧縮」は啓蒙主義と関連付けて捉えられ、仮想現実な時代がそのプロセスを悪化させているともいえる。

　伝統的な教育の場に対する疑問の声が挙がっており、「悪魔とのダンス」と呼ばれる（Katz & Associates 1999）。・・・伝統的な教育は、こうした社会的圧力や諸力に適応することが強いられ、市場原理に従わない限りは存続しえない。しかしながら、これらの新しい機関を「知識工場」と非難し、教育に対するより人間主義的アプローチを支持する議論もある（Aronowitz 2000）。　今や自立した学習者の発達を目指す真の機会が提供されているが、この学習空間を効果的に学習者のエンパワメントに結びつけるための、新たな教育的モデルを開発するうえで、私達は大きな壁に直面している（Peters 2002:133）。

　技術革新による遠隔教育の利点：システム自体の長所・短所よりも、市場の長所・短所と結びつけられてしまうが、システムには明確は長所がある。例えば、困難な状況や責務がある場合、学校や大学まで移動しなくて良いし、自分の都合で学ぶことができる。遠隔教育は間違いなく、教育分野においていっそう重要な領域となる。

　欠点：非人間的なシステムに容易に陥ってしまう恐れや、あらゆる批判にさらされる恐れ、資本主義市場と同様、不利益を被っている市民に文化的・言語的帝国主義の諸形態を共用し、文化や実践を度外視する。残念ながらシステムが中立的であることは稀で、民主的であることも滅多にない。

3. 現代的実践

　遠隔教育には少なくとも7アプローチがある（Peters 2002:40-45）：

1. 「試験準備」モデル
2. 通信教育モデル
3. 多元的（マス）メディアモデル
4. グループ遠隔教育モデル
5. 自律的学習者モデル
6. ネットワーク基盤型遠隔教育モデル
7. 技術－拡張型教育モデル

　加えて、多様な形態を採用する混成型もある。

　自律的学習を育成しようとする機関は、しばしば十分な内容を提供していないと批判される。実際には、遠隔教育の受講生は情報を与えられること、慎重なソクラテス的問答法を通して少なくとも情報に導かれることを好む。ただし、後者は自律的学習を生み出すことに必ずしも貢献しない。

　伝統的な教育機関があらゆる新しいアプローチに適応することは困難だと判断する危惧がある。その結果、それらの教育機関の機能は、学習の提供者から単位認定者へと変化し、さらに個々の学習をテストし、単位を認定する試験センターになってしまうことも考えられる。留意すべきは、市場の敗者は消え去ることである。これは教育全般の退廃につながり、特定分野の学習では特に危惧される。

　あらゆる教材の制作は、かなり高度な技能が求められる複雑なプロセス。教育者には新たな役割が急速に生まれてきているが、求められる水準には研修が不十分。・・・「ガイドのついた講義的会話」と呼ばれたように、教材は会話的で、ほぼ双方向的なものでないといけない（Holmberg 1960:14）。

　遠隔教育の技法に関わる資格付与課程はまだ少ないが、今は子供たちがそうした技法の利用に精通しているため、教師がICT研修を受ける重要性は高まっている（Chaib & Svensson 2005）。 

2020 Spring Term, GS course Textbook:

Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice, Routledge.

Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice

Chapter 10: Distance Ed & Open Learning

Peters (2009:226 In Jarvis) suggests that ‘[t]he concept of distance education, although still practiced globally, is more than 150 years old and hence pedagogically and technologically outdated’.

1. The nature of distance ed & OL

one of most complete discussions of the meaning of the term ‘distance education’ is given by Keegan (1990:28–47)... characterizes distance education in the following manner:

• It involves a semi-permanent separation of teacher and learner.
• It is influenced by the educational organization in both the preparation of the teaching materials and the support of the students.
• It uses technical media.
• It is a two-way process.
• It has a semi-permanent absence of a learning group

Distance education is therefore defined here as those forms of education in which organized learning opportunities are usually provided through technical media to learners who normally study individually, and removed from the teacher in both time and space...with the development of the World Wide Web, the idea of the teacher begins to be unnecessary to the education; education and learning are now distinct phenomena. At this juncture, we can see that distance learning is different from distance education. The former is usually provided by educational institutions and is accredited by them, but now learning opportunities like those provided by the web can gain educational accreditation through the Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning.

we can see that this approach to education might eventually result in there being fewer educational institutions – and fewer academics – as face-to-face tuition becomes more expensive.

Another significant theorist of distance education at the same time was Holmberg (1989), who regarded it as a form of guided didactic conversation and who considered that there are seven postulates to distance education:

1. There should be the creation of a personal relationship between the teaching and learning parties.
2. There needs to be well-developed self-instructional material.
3. There should be intellectual pleasure in the exercise.
4. The atmosphere, language and conventions should foster friendly conversation. 
5. The message received by the learner should be conversational in tone, easily understood and remembered.
6. A conversational approach should always be used in distance education.
7. Planning and guiding are necessary for organized study.

...it has been discovered that learners actually want to be given a lot of material. Indeed, there is a real sense in which learners want a great deal of information in distance education courses, so that they feel that they are getting a lot to learn – getting their ‘money's worth’ if it is self-funded. one of the main differences about the preparation of teaching material for distance education and e-learning is that it involves a multidisciplinary team approach to teaching much more than does traditional teaching and learning.

Giddens (1990) suggests a number of features that typify contemporary society as being late-modern, such as its industrial-capitalistic nature, space–time distanciation, disembedded mechanisms and expert systems, reflexivity and individual responsibility.

1-1. Space-time distanciation

Giddens indicates that in ‘pre-modern societies, space and place largely coincide, since the spatial dimensions of social life are, for most of the population, and in most respects, dominated by “presence” – by localised activities’ (1990:18)... Now teachers record their lessons and they can be studied in the students’ own time and place. The learning experience is no longer immediate and face to face, but mediated and secondary... distance education, by definition, symbolizes the process of space–time distanciation; we will return to this discussion in the next section when we examine space–time compression.

1-2. Disembedded mechanism & expert systems

Disembedding implies a process of extracting the specific localized social relations and re-implanting them within a global context of space and time. ... The distance teaching institution is disembedded and needs no campus and no geographical location. In other words, the academy is now no longer a place, it is a process and a system; its educational offering is now a product guaranteed to provide specific learning for the purchasers.

1-3. Reflective learning

The reflexivity of modernity...examination and re-examination of social practices which are ‘reformed in the light of incoming information about those very practices’ (Giddens 1990:38). Consequently, the traditional mode of doing things is no longer sufficient justification for continuing a practice... hi-tech productions have become cheaper and the size of the market will increase, and it will be the cost of accreditation that inhibits some learners from gaining sufficient recognition for their learning for a few more years to come.

However, the concern here is much more with reflective learning. There are more opportunities when students operate at their own time and pace and in their own space for them to reflect upon the learning material with which they are presented. ... Exercises can and should be provided in distance teaching in order to encourage reflective learning, but this reflective learning must also be critical learning since the autonomy of the learner can be much greater in e-learning.

1-4. Individuation

individuals feel able to follow their own pursuits at their own time and in their own way, and to some extent to be self-determining individuals...Distance education may therefore be seen to fit many of the characteristics of late modernity and it may be regarded as being a symbol of this form of society.

2. The continued development of distance ed into OL

2-1. Advanced capitalism

In recent times, education in most societies of the world has been provided by the state, although religious bodies have also been major providers... When distance education really developed – especially in its university form, with the Open University in the United Kingdom, it was still partially state-provided. However, in more recent times there has been a proliferation of distance education ‘universities’ (Jarvis 2001b) that have been totally private, and some have successfully sought to gain accreditation for their courses.

... the capitalistic market is one of competition. The rhetoric of the market is that only the best-quality commodities will survive, but its reality is that only the strongest and largest organizations survive, irrespective of the quality of the product they sell. Distance education now advertises its wares, and buyers wish to know not only about the nature of the course being studied, but also the length of time...the number of assignments that have to be submitted and the fee that they will have to pay...One of the obvious outcomes of this process is that unsuccessful institutions, irrespective of the quality of their product or of their potentiality, will lose out and may be forced to close. Hence, the large get larger at the expense of the small, unless, say, the small discover a gap in the market, but the consequences of this are self-evident: the innovative small will get taken over and incorporated into the larger. 

2-2. Information technology

the development of distance education in conjunction with the developments in information technology. But the digital age has generated a new and major development in distance education, which can be associated with another aspect of space–time realignment: space–time compression (Harvey 1990:240–259). 

With these developments there has been some questioning about the place of more traditional education.Katz & Associates (1999) called this ‘dancing with the devil’ ... Clearly, traditional education has been forced to adapt to these social pressures, or else – following the inevitable law of the market – it will not survive. Aronowitz (2000), however, sees these new institutions as ‘knowledge factories’, which he condemns, arguing for a more humanistic approach to education.

YetPeters (2002:133) would argue that we are now presented with real opportunities for the development of autonomous learners but that we are faced with major challenges in developing new pedagogical models to utilize this new learning space effectively to empower them.

there are many advantages in the system: people not having to travel to schools and colleges because of disadvantage or commitments, being able to study in their own time and at their own pace, and so on. But it can easily become an impersonal system that is open to all the criticisms that have been raised above, although it will no doubt continue to become an even more significant sector within the field of education and, like the capitalist market itself, it will continue to impose forms of cultural and linguistic imperialism on disadvantaged peoples and undermine local cultures and practices. Consequently, we have to see both the advantages and the disadvantages of distance education at the present time. The system does have many advantages in contemporary society but, unfortunately, it can hardly ever be neutral or even democratic. (pp. 205-206).

3. Contemporary practices

Peters (2002:40–45) has suggested that there are at least seven different approaches to distance education today:

1. the ‘examination preparation’ model;
2. the correspondence education model;
3. the multiple (mass) media model;
4. the group distance education model;
5. the autonomous learner model;
6. the network-based distance education model;
7. the technology-extended classroom model.

In addition, he recognizes that there are hybrids of these taking a variety of forms.

Basically, the World Wide Web has produced the most extensive ‘library’ of learning materials and opportunities that the world has ever known – more knowledge than anyone can imagine or learn – and this can all be accessed almost instantaneously at any individual's convenience in the home. Consequently, the opportunities that this offers are too many to number, but there is a fear that traditional institutions will find it hard to adapt to all these new approaches... so that their functions may change from providers of learning to accreditors of learning – even to becoming examination centres through which individuals’ learning may be tested and accredited. Then it has to be borne in mind that those who do not succeed in the market may perish, and this could be to the impoverishment of education generally and to some fields of study in particular.

However, producing all this material is also a very highly skilled and complex process. As we shall note later in this book, new roles for educators are rapidly emerging, and insufficient training exists that enables educators to become proficient at many of the skills required. ...The style in which the material is written, if it is written, needs careful consideration, and Holmberg (1960:14) suggested that the material had to be conversational and almost two-way, which he later came to regard as guided didactic conversation. This is true also in the assessment of coursework that is to be returned to the distance education learners: comments might be regarded as an invitation to dialogue through the medium of the students’ assignments and the tutors’ comments.

There are not yet many such certificated courses in the techniques of distance education, but as children are now so adept at using such techniques, it is becoming increasingly important for teachers to be trained in ICT (seeChaib & Svensson 2005)

Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning, Chapter 6

2020 Spring Term, GS course Textbook:

Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice, Routledge.

Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice

Chapter 6. Developments in Learning Theory

大意「学習論の今後は老齢学とも連携、全人教育」

1.　Learning & action

Fundamental to a great deal of learning is learning by doing – that is, discovery learning, imitating and trial and error. In the book Towards a Comprehensive Theory of Human Learning (Jarvis, 2006) I listed i) behaviourism, ii) social learning and iii) action learning in this category (pp. 119-120)

• Behaviourism is best known from the work of Pavlov (1927) and the stimulus–response theories such as that of Skinner (1951);
• social learning theories include that of Miller & Dollard (1941), who claimed that all behaviour is learned in specific social, historical and cultural contexts. Among the classic social learning theorists is Bandura (1977), who, among other things, observed how children imitated adult behaviour, and more recently Lave and Wenger (1991), who were concerned about how individuals become socialized into organizations through learning from within their social context.
• Action learning was popularized by Revans (1980, 1982), who developed the formula L = P + Q, where L = learning, P = programmed knowledge gained and Q = questioning insights. A

1-1 Early childhood learning

Increasingly it is becoming apparent that it is false to try to separate adult learning from child learning...  First of all, it has always been recognized that play is important to child development; it is not just the aimless passing of time with or by children: ‘simply running around without purpose or rules is boring and does not appeal to children’ (Vygotsky, 1978:103). 

Vygotsky (1978:93) sees play as enabling children to create imaginary situations in which unrealizable desires can be realized... imagination is a new psychological process that is not present in the initial consciousness of children and it is at the heart of our understanding of play. 

1-2 Creativity

Creativity is not necessarily about knowing how or knowing that, but it might be: for instance, good creative artists may have learned all the skills of the artist before they become creative... Joas (1996) uses five metaphors that are most frequently employed about creativity: expression, production, revolution, life, and intelligence & reconstruction. All of these terms capture something of the nature of creativity and all refer to aspects of our doing, but they are not only about doing; they are about being.

We cannot be taught to be creative but we can learn to throw off some of the inhibitions that hinder our creativity. There are social conditions under which creativity is more likely to occur – and that is when the social structures that inhibit (that is, those we learn in our socialization) are lowered so that the social norms of behaviour are weakened. In this instance we enter liminality (Turner, 1969), a point that I (Jarvis, 2008) have discussed quite fully elsewhere...Joas (1996) discusses the idea of creative democracy, and so we see how creativity and play may be linked together in this way.

2. Cognition

What Blakemore and Frith (2005) call implicit learning is what I (Jarvis 1987) called pre-conscious learning; they show that we can learn without awareness.

3. Emotions

Emotions have been divided into primary and secondary ones. The primary ones are those that have been built into us as a result of our evolutionary past – that is, they are hard-wired... While most sense experiences are transferred to the brain via the thalamus, some neurones take a short-cut to the amygdala, and so it receives the sensations milliseconds before the social brain. Thus, our immediate reactions are emotional before they are rational. Goleman (1995:16) regards this as an emotional sentinel that is able to hijack the brain... Goleman's (1995:80) conclusions about the place of emotion in learning are important: ... to the degree to which we are motivated by feelings of enthusiasm and pleasure in what we do – or even by an optimal degree of anxiety – they propel us to accomplishment. It is in this sense that emotional intelligence is a master aptitude, a capacity that profoundly affects all other abilities, either facilitating or interfering with them.

4. Experience

Dewey (1938) suggested that we live in a series of episodic experiences and so we learn from these episodes. 

5. Ageing

Educational gerontology is, consequently, becoming an increasingly significant area of study... a new profession of learning therapist (Jarvis, 2001a) in order to advise on such learning environments. We will also research the whole issue of becoming confused, because insufficient stimulus is provided for elderly people to learn. Consequently, we should see new developments in situated learning.

While the focus in the past forty years has been third age learning, we are now moving into a situation where we will see developments in learning theory among the very old: fourth age learning.

6. The whole person

When we learn a skill, we also learn knowledge, perhaps acquire confidence, and so on, and so it is important to look at the whole person.

Our identity is not just that we are a teacher but that I am this teacher – the ‘i’ is the unique me that I have learned from early childhood and which is still with me for as long as I exist as an independent human being. 

It is only in disjunctural situations that we have to think about our actions... we have to learn how to play our role afresh – but it is still the same ‘I’ who learns it and plays it. But herein is one of the major problems: we are no longer free to play that role in any way we wish since there are two sets of constraints.

1) we have social identities, which means that we will consider how any new role performance will be perceived by our social life-world, and so we will feel constrained to act in accord with the way that we perceive others anticipate that we will act.

2) we have spent a lifetime developing our own personality characteristics and so, even if we could, we are unlikely to produce a different set of personality traits in any new action. Any fresh expression of my role is still recognizable as ‘me’.

...there are a multitude of personality traits and it would be impossible to provide a definitive list... But the whole person is about body as well as mind, and we have to recognize the significance of the body in learning (O'Loughlin, 2006) since all of our experiences begin with a sense experience: we are more than just a ‘cognitive personality’. 

Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation (Learning in Doing: Social, Cognitive and Computational Perspectives) (English Edition)

Experience And Education (Illustrated Edition) (English Edition)

Learning to be a Person in Society (English Edition)

Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning, Chapter 5

2020 Spring Term, GS course Textbook:

Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice, Routledge.

Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice

Chapter 5. Perspectives on Learning Theory

大意「教育学者と学習論」

1. Paulo Freire

His writings epitomized an intellectual movement that developed in Latin America after the second World War, a synthesis of Christianity and Marxism that found its theological fulfilment in liberation theology... From this background it may be seen that at the heart of his educational ideas lay a humanistic conception of people as learners, but also an expectation that once they had actually learned, they should not remain passive but become active participants in the wider world. Hence, for Freire, education could never be a neutral process; it is either designed to facilitate freedom or it is ‘education for domestication’ (Freire 1973c: 79)

... objectified culture is transmitted to the individual through the lifelong process of socialization. Since the culture that was transmitted was foreign to the values of the Brazilian people, who were its recipients, Freire claimed that this was the culture of the colonizers, and implicit in the process was the subordination of the culture of the indigenous people. 

Since a construction of reality is contained within language, the common people have a construction of reality imposed upon them that is false to their own heritage. Thus, the idea of a false self-identify emerges, one that perpetually undervalues the indigenous culture, so that native people come to see themselves as subordinate. Hence, the oppressed are imprisoned in a cultural construction of reality that is false to them but one from which it is difficult to escape, since even their language transmits the values that imprison them. 

Through the process of literacy education, Freire and his colleagues were able to design experiential situations in which the learners were enabled to reflect upon their own understanding of themselves in their sociocultural milieu. It was this combination of action and reflection that he called praxis (Freire, 1972b:96)... the difference between human beings and the other animals: people are able to process their experiences and reflect upon them. Through the process of reflection, individuals may become conscious of realities other than the one into which they have been socialized. Freire wrote that conscientization ‘is a permanent critical approach to reality in order to discover it and discover the myths that deceive us and help to maintain the oppressing dehumanizing structures’ ... it slightly differently: conscientization ‘implies that in discovering myself oppressed I know that I will be liberated only if I try to transform the oppressing structure in which I find myself’ (pp. 98-99).

Later, he claimed that he no longer used the term ‘conscientization’... still regarded education as ‘the practice of freedom’ through which process learners discover themselves and achieve something more of the fullness of their humanity by acting upon the world to transform it

... if there is not something radical about the educational process, the question needs to be posed as to how it differs from socialization. If education actually provides people with an opportunity to process and to reflect upon their experiences, it must allow them to reach different conclusions about them and to choose whether or not they will behave in a conformist manner... Freire's work is relevant throughout the world, and even more so as globalization is widening the gap between the rich and powerful and the remainder of the world's population. 

2. Robert M. Gagné

developed a model for understanding a relationship between learning and instruction.

3. Knud Illeris

... there are four major elements in learning:

1. the learner (understood from biology, psychology and social science);
2. the context or external conditions of the learning (learning space, society and objective situation);
3. the internal process of the learning, which he calls internal conditions (dispositions, life age and subjective experience of the situation); and finally,
4. the outcomes of the learning, which he regards as applications (pedagogy and learning policy).

Learning occurs at the point of interaction between these basic elements in two processes: the learners and their social situation and an internal process of acquisition and elaboration. Consequently, he sees behaviourist, cognitivist and social learning elements in every human learning process. .. that learning always has three dimensions:

1. content,knowledge, skills, meaning, and so on
2. incentive the drivers for learning such as motivation, emotion and volition
3. interaction the social context of learning and involves action, communication and cooperation.

Illeris's approach is a very neat way of summarizing learning... four types of learning that build upon the mental patterns:

1 cumulative learning;

2 assimilative learning;

3 accommodative learning;

4 transformative learning.

4. Malcolm Knowles

Knowles may almost be regarded as the father of andragogy... defined as ‘the art and science of helping adults learn’ (1980a:43). 

Knowles (1978:53–57) initially distinguished sharply between the way in which adults and children learn and claimed that there are four main assumptions that differentiate andragogy from pedagogy:

1. a change in self-concept, since adults need to be more self-directive;
2. experience, since mature individuals accumulate an expanding reservoir of experience which becomes an exceedingly rich resource in learning;
3. readiness to learn, since adults want to learn in the problem areas with which they are confronted and which they regard as relevant;
4. orientation towards learning; since adults have a problem-centred orientation, they are less likely to be subject centred.

5. added the motivation to learn (Knowles, 1986:12),

6. the need to know (Knowles, 1989:83–85). 

But other scholars, such as Riesman (1950), have pointed out that some adults are ‘other-directed’, so that when they come to the learning situation they may seek to become dependent upon a teacher. While it may be one of the functions of an adult educator to try to help dependent adults to discover some independence, it must be recognized that this may be a very difficult step for some learners. But the fact that there are other-directed people suggests that Knowles's formulation was a little sweeping in this respect.

... andragogy is not a distinct approach to adult learning, but it does contain some elements of experiential learning theory.  (p. 111).

5. Jack Mezirow

Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning (1991) he synthesized much of his earlier work, which he then extended in Learning as Transformation (Mezirow and Associates, 2000).

learning is the process of making meaning from experiences as a result of the learner's previous knowledge, so that learning is a new interpretation of an experience which has not changed greatly in the ensuing years. He went on to show how people make meaning in a variety of different ways and he also analysed the distorted assumptions that stem from prior experiences. Making meaning is an important element in learning, although, as I have pointed out, he restricts it to the cognitive domain, which is a pity since skills, emotions and even the senses are also learned from experience.

Mezirow starts from the assumption that everyone has constructions of reality which are dependent on reinforcement from various sources in the socio-cultural world. He calls these constructions of reality ‘perspectives’ and notes that they are transformed when individuals’ perspectives are not in harmony with their experience – a situation of disjunction. The individual's construction of reality is transformed as a result of reflecting upon experiences and plotting new strategies of living as a result of their assessment of the situation.

In his latest work(Mezirow and Associates, 2000) he also stresses the difference between instrumental and communicative learning.

... definition of learning as ‘the process of using a prior interpretation to construe a new or revised interpretation of the meaning of one's experience as a guide to future action’ focuses on the cognitive domain and is rather narrow. He(Mezirow and Associates, 2000:19) claims that learning occurs in four ways:

1. elaborating existing frames of reference;
2. learning new frames of reference;
3. transforming points of view;
4. transforming habits of mind.

At the heart of Mezirow's work is meaning, which means that despite his references to emotional intelligence, and even to the spiritual, his is a rather restricted approach to learning. 

some differences between Mezirow's work and that of other theorists who consider the wider socio-cultural milieu. Both he and Freire regard education as a liberating force: Freire views it as releasing the individual from the false consciousness in which he has been imprisoned as a result of the dominance of the culture of the colonizers, but Mezirow regards the freedom from a more psychological perspective. Both Freire and Mezirow focus on the social construction of reality and regard learning as a method by which this may be changed.

transformative

Perhaps his focus on adult learning as transformative finds its origins in his idea that there are different levels of reflection, of which he (1981:12–13) specifies seven – some of which he claims are more likely to occur in adulthood:

1. reflectivity: awareness of specific perception, meaning, behaviour; 
2. affective reflectivity: awareness of how the individual feels about what is being perceived, thought or acted upon; 
3. discriminant reflectivity: assessing the efficacy of perception, etc.;
4. judgemental reflectivity: making and becoming aware of the value of judgements made;
5. conceptual reflectivity: assessing the extent to which the concepts employed are adequate for the judgement;
6. psychic reflectivity: recognition of the habit of making percipient judgements on the basis of limited information;
7. theoretical reflectivity: awareness of why one set of perspectives is more or less adequate to explain personal experience.

5 to 7, Mezirow maintains, are more likely to occur in adulthood, but this claim might run into the same difficulties that Knowles ran into with his distinction between andragogy and pedagogy. Even so, the final one he regards as quite crucial to perspective transformation.

Indeed, there is a sense in which his approach is very similar to the phenomenological approach... also focuses on disjuncture – that is, if a person's stock of knowledge is inadequate to explain the experience, then the questioning process is reactivated... 

Additionally, his emphasis upon reflection is important since he has extended the analysis quite considerably by suggesting different forms.

6. Carl Rogers

Rogers (1969:157–164) regards experiential learning as being at one end of a spectrum, but at the other he places memory learning. 

被抑圧者の教育学――50周年記念版

希望の教育学

Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning (Jossey Bass Higher & Adult Education Series)

Contemporary Theories of Learning: Learning Theorists … In Their Own Words (English Edition)

Transformative Learning in Practice: Insights from Community, Workplace, and Higher Education (English Edition)

Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning, Chapter 4

2020 Spring Term, GS course Textbook:

Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice, Routledge.

Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice

Chapter 4. Learning

大意「学習は存在論的現象、学ぶことと生きることは不可分」

1.　The nature of learning

Since it is the person who is the recipient of that data or information, it is natural that most learning theories start with the person ... Leaning must always be seen within the wider cultural context and it may be regarded initially as a process of receiving and transforming any element of culture, by whatever means it is transmitted (p. 68). 

2.　Theories of learning

Merriam and Caffarella (1989) have typified the variety of learning theories: behaviourist, cognitive, humanist and social.

2-1. Behaviourist theories

Immitation, Coonectionism（連合説, recognition as "trial & error" learning）, conditioning (such as Pavlov 1927 and "Operant conditioning" by Skinner 1951)

2-2. Cognitive theories

Cognitive theories will be outlined here: developmental, Gestalt, data processing, transformative and, finally, the work of Bruner.

1. Development theories (e.g. Piaget 1929 in West) postulated a number of stages in the process of cognitive development which he related to the process of biological development during childhood (p. 71)... In Eastern Europe, Vygotsky (1978, 1986) has had a similar influence ... but developmental processes do not coincide with learning processes. For him (1978:90), ‘the developmental process lags behind the learning process’. He postulated that there is a level of actual development and also a zone of proximal development (最近接発達領域); the former he defines as ‘the level of development of a child's mental functions that has been established as a result of already completed developmental cycles’ (1978:85–86; italics in original), whereas the latter is ‘the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined by problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers’. We see here an important factor in Vygotsky's work: he did not isolate the individual but recognized that development is dependent upon relationship and collaboration. Basing some of his thinking on Vygotsky's work, Engestrom (1987) regards the zone of proximal development as a space for creativity, and this he applies to all forms of activity and learning, in both adults and children. Engestrom has also developed his work with specific reference to activity theory in organizational settings, and in his book Learning, Working and Imagining (1990) there are twelve very carefully researched and analysed case studies.
2. Gestalt theorists: ... there is a tendency to complete an incomplete representation, so that the whole is perceived, rather than the incomplete parts.
3. Data processing: learning begins with a stimulus which is partially picked up by a sensory register and processed through selective perception to the short-term memory.
4. Transformative learning: ... learning is a process of constructing new meaning (Ausubel et al., 1978). This is a feature that Mezirow (1991) has also focused on in transformative learning, which is not surprising, as Mezirow's focus of attention is on adults rather than on the person as a whole.

5. Bruner (1990:104) considered ‘learning theory’ dead... argued for the significance of meaning and meaning-making... "the degree that one is able to approach learning as a task of discovering something rather than ‘learning about’ it, to that degree there will be a tendency for the child to work with the autonomy of self-reward or, more properly, be rewarded by discovery itself. (ibid.:88)

2-3. Social learning

Vygotsky (1978) clearly recognized the social nature of learning, and we are all well aware of learning through imitation, the adoption of role models, ‘sitting by Nellie’, and so on. Social learning theory emphasizes behavioural learning, and clearly relies on certain forms of reinforcement, but it is necessary to focus briefly on those researchers who have seen learning from a social perspective. The main social learning theorist has been Bandura (e.g. 1977, 1989), who has shown through numerous experiments that many of the behavioural patterns ... have been acquired through observing and copying others.... we are probably all aware that we do it, especially when we enter new situations and are unsure about how to behave... Bandura showed that children acquire aggressive behaviour in the same way... We can imitate in whatever situation we find ourselves, as Lave and Wenger (1991) show in their book Situated Learning and Wenger (1998) develops in his study of communities in practice. 

3. Experience & learning

...belief that all genuine education comes about through experience ... does not mean that all experiences are genuinely or equally educative (Dewey 1938: 25). Knowles (e.g. 1980a) focused our thinking on the centrality of experience in his work on andragogy, and this is not surprising in the light of the fact that adult education itself has traditionally been learner-centered... Boud et al. (1983) also emphasized when they focused on the idea that learning was reflective experience. Many writers have focused on experience as a basis for human learning over the years. It has been Kolb's (1984) work that has become the popular focus of this work...

Kolb's (1984) learning cycle has become one of the central images of experiential learning, although Kolb and Fry claimed from the outset that the learning cycle may begin at any stage and that it should be a continuous circle... This cycle, which has become tremendously popular (probably because of its simplicity), does not do justice to the complexity of human learning.

the practice situation is actually one in which potential learning experiences do occur ... when students enter the practical situation for the first time, they are entering a new learning situation, and this is true irrespective of how much learning has occurred in the classroom before that new experience happened. The students are now having for the first time a primary, rather than a secondary, experience about practice, and they experience it differently. They are experiencing a new learning situation, so that the more they have learned from previous experiences, the more likely they are to have some knowledge that they can use in the present situation.

The transformation of the person through learning: the combination of processes throughout a lifetime whereby the whole person – body (genetic, physical and biological) and mind (knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, emotions, meaning, beliefs and senses) – experiences social situations, the content of which is then transformed cognitively, emotively or practically (or through any combination) and integrated into the individual person's biography resulting in a continually changing (or more experienced) person. This process may be depicted as in Figure 4.3.(p. 81).

• Life-world: As we learn the subculture of the society into which we are born, so we construct our own life-world. 
• Disjuncture: a complex phenomenon and yet it is best described as the gap between what we expect to perceive when we have an experience of the world as a result of our previous learning (and, therefore, our biography) and what we are actually confronted with... coincidence is when there is no conscious experience because we can presume upon the world. Divergence is when there is a slight difference and we can adjust our behaviour to respond to the situation without changing our understanding of the world (our theory/meaning), and can do so in an almost unconscious manner. Separation is when there is a larger gap between the two, and this is where the questioning begins and where our conscious learning starts. Distinction is when the gap is so wide that we know that in order to bridge it we have to undertake a great deal of learning, perhaps by undertaking a course of study. ... Conscious disjuncture begins at the point of separation; we are aware of the situation and we consciously experience the world, but we do this cognitively, emotively and practically. Disjuncture occurs in all three dimensions of experience, and is often a combination... (p. 84).
• Experience: Life might be described as a passage through time, so time must be the starting point of any discussion of experience. Human existence is situated within time and emerges through it, and I have argued elsewhere that learning is the process through which the human, as opposed to the biological, being grows and develops (Jarvis, 1992). Since we do construct our experiences, we do so within our own life-worlds – or cultural frameworks. Consequently, our reality is determined by our culture, and this, in its own way, affects not only our identity but also the way in which we learn. 
• Thinking, feeling, doing: We deal with our experience by memorizing it, thinking about it, feeling it or doing something about it, and so on. Significantly, the content of our experience depends upon how long it lasts and what degree of attention we give to it. Crawford (2005) shows how attentiveness to our experiences helps us be aware of the senses, other than cognition, that affect our bodies and change our learning, and she suggests that it is during attentive experience that the more spiritual side of our being becomes more apparent.

4. Types & styles of learning

Some people are rigid in their approach to learning, since once they have discovered a successful method, they always seek to apply that method. This creates its own difficulties, since problems emerge that cannot be solved by the normal approach.

4-1. Types of learning

1. Non-learning occurs when we take a situation for granted and we act upon it in a taken-for-granted manner.
2. Non-consideration: no learning, although knowing the disjuncuture
3. Rejection: reject learning opportunity
4. Ambivalence: conflict between emotion & rational thought.
5. Pre-conscious knowledge learning (incidental learning): 
6. Memorization
7. Emotional learning
8. Action learning: frequently occurs through bodily learning – that is, through sense experience
9. Discovery learning: Trial & error learning
10. Contemplation (reflective): occurs when philosophers and mathematicians reflect upon their problems. 

4-2. Learning & thinking styles

1. Learning styles: Active v. passive, Assimilators v. accommodators (Kolb 1984:78), Convergers v. divergers (Kolb, 1984:77), Field dependence v. field independence, Focusing v. scanning, Holistic v. serialistic, Reflection v. impulsivity. Rigidity v. flexibility.
2. Thinking styles: Belenky et al. (1986) used the phrase ‘ways of knowing’ 

• Silence: described as being ‘deaf and dumb’ since some of the women in the study could not learn from the voices of others and they themselves felt voiceless.
• Received knowledge: Some of the women learned to listen to the voices of others but had no confidence in their own ability to think. Once again, authorities have the right answers; they know the ‘truth’... Knowledge always lay outside of them
• Subjective knowledge: To reach the state of subjective knowing, individuals have to wrest control of their lives from others. This period of transition rarely had anything to do with learning in an educational setting
• Procedural knowledge: sees the subjectivist approach as being in conflict with a recognition that there is external validity.
• Constructed knowledge: all knowledge is subjective and that the knowers construct their own knowledge. It is integrated and personal between those who can both listen and share in a collaborative manner. Knowledge about reality is complex, and experts are aware of the complexities of their subject. Now all knowledge is challenged but the process is intimately connected with caring. Constructivists become passionate knowers and emphasize the never-ending search for truth.(pp. 94-95). 

Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development (English Edition)

最強の経験学習

Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning, Chapter 3

2020 Spring Term, GS course Textbook:

Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice, Routledge.

Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice

Chapter 3. Education and Learning

大意「フォーマル・ノンフォーマル・インフォーマルな学習」

1. The concepts of learning & education

1-1. Learning is an existential phenomenon 

– it is intrinsic to our being –... it is about our experience of everyday life. At the same time, we have to recognize that learning is more than phenomenal since our experiences are affected by the experience we have; it is also affected by the social structures within which we exist, and so on. In making the claim that learning is intrinsic to our being, we can see immediately that the study of learning has as many academic bases as there are disciplines that study the human being – that the study of learning must be multidisciplinary (Jarvis and Parker, 2005; Jarvis, 2009a). (p. 38).

At its very least, learning is the transformation of our experiences of living so that they affect us as persons – in this sense they become part of our biography – and so we can begin to see the parameters of learning... Jarvis (2009a:25) have defined learning as [t]he combination of processes throughout a lifetime whereby the whole person – body (genetic, physical and biological) and mind (knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, emotions, meaning, beliefs and senses) – experiences social situations, the content of which is then transformed cognitively, emotively or practically (or through any combination) and integrated into the individual person's biography resulting in a continually changing (or more experienced) person.(pp. 38-39).

1-2. Learning is prescribed in the name of education

In a sense, we are constructing our own biography whenever we learn. While we live, our biography is an unfinished product constantly undergoing change and development ... We are always learning to be persons in society, and here we are confronted by paradox: the person is always complete whenever we consider a person whom we know, but we also know that the person is never complete and will not be so for as long as he or she can learn from conscious experiences. People are always becoming, and we develop our personalities in different ways as a result of our experiences. Since learning is social, learners are not always free to learn what they would like; often the learners’ learning is prescribed.

Education ... is the provision of learning opportunities, but these opportunities are often bound by parameters decided by what the providers wish the learners to learn... State-provided education, for instance, has been traditionally something restricted to children, who are expected to learn what is prescribed, although religious institutions educated older people many centuries before children were educated. (p. 39). 

John Stuart Mill ... claimed that the content of education was to be found in ‘the culture which each generation purposely gives to those who are to be their successors’ (quoted in Lester-smith, 1966:9). Emile Durkheim... regarded education in a similar manner: ...‘the influence exercised by adult generations on those who are not yet ready for social life’ (1956:71). But by the beginning of the twentieth century it was becoming more apparent in the West that an inter-generational perspective was not adequate to describe the educational process. John Dewey (1916:8)...was forced to add the prefix formal to the term education in order to express the same sentiments as those specified by Mill and Durkheim if society was to transmit all its achievements from one generation to the subsequent one. Today, formal education refers to both institutionalized learning and a teaching method – to the structure and the process. In addition, and the term most likely to be used to convey the same idea, there is initial education; the idea was that by a given stage in the lifespan, individuals have stored away sufficient knowledge and skill to serve them for the remainder of their lives, so that their education is then complete. (pp. 39-40).

1-3. Learning & education

Learning has to involve understanding, which is essentially a quality of critical awareness. Before a definition is offered, it is necessary to examine the term ‘humanistic’ here. Dewey claimed that knowledge is essentially ‘humanistic in quality not because it is about human products in the past, but because of what it does in liberating human intelligence and human sympathy’ (1916:230). It is this human element that was reflected in the discussion in the opening chapter when knowledge was separated from information. Dewey went on to suggest that any specific matter that does this is essentially humane, so that in this context ‘humanistic’ has two facets: it is concerned about the welfare and humanity of the participants and it is humane. Hence, this implies that the educational process is normative and idealistic. (p. 41).

Education may now be defined as ‘any institutionalized and planned series of incidents, having a humanistic basis, directed towards the participants’ learning and understanding’...This basic definition of education does not restrict education to any specific learning process, to any time in life, to any specific location or to any specific purpose. At the same time, Biesta (2007) reminds us that focusing on learning rather than on educating presupposes that the learners know what they want and that education is now part of a learning market. (p. 41).

Schooling is part of the formal education system, as are further and higher education, but there are other forms of education and learning, as we will discuss in the following pages. However, we can see at this point that learning is a wider concept than education – for education is but one system through which we learn. Coombs and Ahmed... sought to distinguish formal education from informal and non-formal education. They define formal education as ‘the highly institutionalized chronologically graded and hierarchically structured “education system” spanning lower primary school and upper reaches of the university’ (1974:8). Their intention was to distinguish it from other forms of lifelong education occurring throughout the world, as the model shown in Figure 3.1 illustrates. (pp. 41-42).

from Fig. 3.1: A to F.

Type of learning: intended & incidental

Type of situation: Formal, Non-formal, & Informal

However, the degree of formality is not the only variable in the subcultures of social situations that might affect either the type of learning or the behavioural outcomes of such learning; the politics and culture of the social context, the social position of both learners and teachers ... will be among the factors that affect the type of experience...(p.43)

2. Formal learning

... the global capitalist expansion really occurred in the later 1960s and early 1970s. It was also at this time that we began to see tremendous changes in the education of adults, changes that were, in the first instance, a little unclear... Adult education had traditionally been outside the mainstream education... adult education could have been classified as non-formal education. 

2-1. The foundations of lifelong education

The concept of lifelong learning was first adopted by UNESCO), although it was not a new concept:(Dewey, 1916:51) says, "It is common place to say that education should not cease when one leaves school... the purpose of school organization is to ensure the continuance of education by organizing the powers that insure growth. The inclination to learn from life itself and to make the condition of life such that all will learn in the process of living is the finest product of schooling." 

Among his disciples was Lindeman, author of The Meaning of Adult Education (1961 [1926] ), who became a major influence on Malcolm Knowles and other influential practitioners in the field.

... the major difference between all of these earlier orientations to lifelong education and the more current ones is that formal lifelong education is now regarded as something necessary for work rather than for the humanity of the learner.

It was not until after the World War II that the term gained prominence and this was because organizations such as UNESCO adopted it, influenced by such individuals as Lengrand (1975). Thereafter, many publications emanating from UNESCO developed and expounded the concept. The Faure Report (1972) advocated that education should be both universal and lifelong, claiming that education precedes economic development and prepares individuals for a society that does not exist but which may do so within their lifetime. The report claimed that education is essential for human beings and their development, and that therefore the whole concept of education needs to be reconsidered. The sentiments of this report were echoed by the Delors Report (1996), in which it was claimed that learning has four pillars: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be. One pillar, however, was not discussed: learning to care for the planet.(p. 45). 

2-2. Continuing education

2-3. Recurrent education

3. Non-formal learning

Human resource development: Among the major NFE developments... known as human resource development but the most significant of all was the development of liberal adult education and, more recently... the education of senior citizens.

3-1. Schultz (1961) introduced the term human capital

... By the mid-1990s all of these terms, except HRD (human resource development), were to be subsumed in a new term, lifelong learning (European Commission, 1995), when ... the term ‘education’ actually began to take second place to learning. ‘Lifelong learning’ has remained the significant term in Europe ever since, although the European Commission (2006) started to use the term adult learning since it recognized that education and training and higher education had their own identities that could never be subsumed within the all-embracing term ‘lifelong learning’.

3-2. The foundations of AE

 ... the 1919 report ... became a benchmark for adult education. In many ways the University of Nottingham led the way by creating the first Department of Adult Education and the first Professor of Adult Education in the world. ... Knowles introduced the term ‘andragogy’ (well known in eastern Europe) to American adult education. Andragogy vs. Pedagogy ... being downplayed. ... andragogical techniques could be used with children and pedagogical ones with adults... AE as post-school liberal education reached a high point in the 1970s and 1980s, but this was also the time when Kerr and his colleagues expected education to become work based – economically useful – and all other forms of adult education to become leisure-time pursuits ... Significantly, libraries and museums, and other such cultural institutions, were regarded as adjuncts to adult education, but when liberal adult education became adult learning, they assumed a more significant place, so that by 2009 the UK government White Paper treats them as of equal significance in non-work education has all been subsumed within the idea of informal learning. This adopts the OECD's approach, which emphasizes the work-based nature of lifelong learning. While we can safely claim that much work-based education is also non-formal, most of the adult education that existed prior to the impact of economic globalization – concerned with culture and the humanities – was to become regarded as a leisure-time pursuit. (pp. 53-54). 

3-3. Community education

Fletcher (1980a, b) suggested three premises in community education: 1) The community has its needs and common causes and is the maker of its own culture; 2) Educational resources are to be dedicated to the articulation of needs and common causes; & 3) Education is an activity in which there is an interplay between the roles of student, teacher and person. Jarvis (2010:57) Three distinct forms of community education: 1) education for action and/or development; 2) education in the community; & 3) extra-mural forms of education. .. at the conceptual level, Lovett et al. (1983:36ff.) also sought to distinguish between different forms of community education, suggesting four types: 1) community organization/education, 2) community development/ education, 3) community action/education and 4) social action/education.
i) Education for community action and/or development: Paulo Freire maintained that education can never be neutral and formulated his ideas in Latin America against a background of illiteracy and poverty, and his thinking was a synthesis of Christian Theology, existentialism and Marxism – one that underlay liberation theology ... emphasized that education should make the learners critically aware of their false consciousness and their social condition. In becoming aware, they should reject many of the myths erected by the ruling elite that inhibit the learners from having a clear perception of their own social reality. Having undergone a process of conscientization, learners should act upon the world to endeavour to create a better society. Among those in the United Kingdom whose approach to education is similar to Freire's is Lovett  (Lovett, 1975, 1980; Lovett and Mackay, 1978, etc.). In the USA, perhaps the best-known institution organizing radical adult education is Highlander, which was founded by Myles Horton in Tennessee and worked with labour unions and citizenship groups...

One of the clear distinguishing features about the education being described here is that these are not formalized educational systems; they are non-formal and occur beyond the boundaries of the traditional formal, bureaucratic educational system that exists in many societies in the world. But this form of radical education has declined in significance in recent days ... Community education is a necessary form of education if we are to enhance democracy, but in a society corrupted by neo-liberalism and parliamentary excesses it is hardly surprising that those in power welcome a form of education that stands for democracy; in fact, it is not only that there is no ‘body capable of representing these concerns to government’ (Wallace, 2008:4) (p. 58).

ii) Education in the community: in the UK that the day school is a community resource, and we are now beginning to see the concept of the extended school emerge. Schools now have an obligation to the community, and they are beginning to run courses for the parents of their pupils and for other people in the community. In addition, schools are using their premises for community education activities, so that a local historical society and a University of the Third Age computer group both known to me regularly use the local comprehensive school's facilities.

iii) Adult education beyond the walls: ... But with the advent of neo-liberal economic policies and practices, universities have had their funds curtailed to such an extent that they are ceasing to provide such education, and thereby impoverishing the civility of contemporary society (Stanistreet, 2009; Jones, 2009).

3-4. Education for senior citizens

In recent years there has been a tremendous growth in non-formal learning for seniors, with perhaps the two best-known organizations being the University of the Third Age in Europe and the Elderhostel institute Network in North America (LLL programs for learning by travelling).

4. Informal learning

4-1. Learning in everyday life: We all live in a social context (life-world) in which we learn (Jarvis, 1987)...there are two conditions essential for learning in everyday life: social interaction and disjuncture.

4-2. Self-directed learning: set by self.

4-3. Informal learning: by OECD and UK government, actually include almost all types of non-school, non-university, non-vocational accredited education under the banner of informal learning (p. 66).

THE SCHOOL AND SOCIETY

The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy

UNESCO’s Utopia of Lifelong Learning: An Intellectual History (Routledge Research in Lifelong Learning and Adult Education) (English Edition)

Learning Democracy in School and Society: Education, Lifelong Learning, and the Politics of Citizenship

Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning, Chapter 2

2020 Spring Term, GS course Textbook:

Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice, Routledge.

Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice

Chapter 2. The Learning Society

大意「学習は社会的文脈の中で生じ、社会の影響を受けて変化」

Globalization

Central-peripheral relationship. At the heart of each society – certainly in the West – is the core, which exercises power over the whole society. The next most powerful group in most societies is made up of international agencies (WB, IMF)... Only when we reach the third level do we come to national governments and then local and regional agencies. This means that the idea of national territorial sovereignty has long disappeared, and even national political leaders have only limited power (pp. 21-22).

The arts and the humanities are distinguished from the really ‘useful’ subjects such as the sciences and social sciences; the transnational corporations consigned the humanities to leisure time, and for them education was to be the handmaiden of industry, taking the raw material of humanity and turning it into the human resources that would drive the world. .. even post-school education has been placed within the ambit of the Minister for Business and Industry in the 2009 British government! Adult educators know that, in the United Kingdom at least, many of the liberal adult education subjects not only have been consigned to leisure time but have been priced at such an exorbitant fee that few people are able to afford to enrol in them. ... But those who control the educational process exercise the major power in teaching and learning since they control the content, so that those who have the greatest social educational needs – the industrialists – have now assumed a very powerful place in society. (p. 23). 

It is clear from this analysis that not only is education controlled by the economics of the situation, but it is also a political phenomenon, although few political studies of the education of adults exist (see Torres, 2009). Education will become even more functionally orientated – as part of the Ministry for Business and industry – as the need to generate more goods and services in order to recreate consumerism. ... During this same period, however, there has been a growing awareness that many of the poor of the world have largely been illiterate, and so UNESCO and the United Nations... have introduced a literacy campaign. The argument has always been that only by being literate could the poor people play their part in the global world economy. Once education is seen in this way, it is politicized. It is not surprising, therefore, that the work of Paulo Freire became very popular at one time, but careful analysis of Freire's work is important to understand where and why it has been successful and where it has been less successful. Freire always presented his understanding of education as being a servant of the people or community in a time of political unrest, so that it was very successful in Latin America but less successful in Africa, where he also worked for a number of years. (p. 24). 

For instance, Oliveira and Oliveira (1976:49) suggest that:

[i]f the literacy campaign is to go beyond the celebration of the past [a political unrest generated by the people] and provide an opening towards the future ... the chosen region must be in the process of experiencing a socio-economic transformation. This point seems particularly important to us, for it is questionable whether learning to read and write corresponds to the real need of the peasant living in a rural area who continues to produce in traditional ways. (quoted in Torres, 2009:165)

My own PhD student showed how in Nepal, once the UNESCO officials left any literacy endeavour, it soon died (Laksamba, 2005). Indeed, despite all the aid given to Nepal, while the literacy rate had improved, it was not presented to the people in the politically relevant (p. 25).

Emergence of the learning society

1. The information society 

we do have to recognize that the information carried and transmitted by technology almost always has use-value, and in this sense it is far from value-free (ウェーバーの認識方法論で、価値評価から距離を置いた自由な態度) – although those who provide that information and those who seek it are in a market exchange situation and so we see that the predominant culture of the capitalist system prevails and the information that has potentially the most use-value is the most valuable. (p. 26).

Webster (2002:141) also refers to the work of Schiller (1981:25), whose discussion comes very close to our model:

What is called the ‘information society’ is, in fact, the production, processing, and transmission of a very large amount of data about all sorts of matters – individual and national, social and commercial, economic and military. Most of the data are produced to meet very specific needs of super-corporations, national and government bureaucracies, and the military establishments of the advanced industrial state.(p. 27).

2. The knowledge economy

Stehr (1994) suggested that the knowledge society is based not on all forms of knowledge, but on scientific knowledge. But this knowledge has grown in volume and changes rapidly, so that Senge (1990:69) makes a significant point that perhaps for the first time in human history, humankind now produces more knowledge than people can absorb, but the knowledge economy fails to utilize a great deal of the knowledge that exists. Crudely, it divides knowledge into useful knowledge and the remainder, which is regarded wrongly as much less useful, and this has affected the way that we think about knowledge, since it is mainly only the ‘useful knowledge’ that is included in curricula and funded by governments. The types of knowledge necessary for us to learn in order to live together and care for the planet are omitted (see Jarvis, 2008, for a full discussion of this) (pp. 28-29). 

3. The learning society

We can divide knowledge into four types: fact, data, information and knowledge. Only the last is learned; the other three are objective and remain outside the person. Facts have no meaning but they can be data that contribute towards the building of meaning, while information can be another person's knowledge that the recipients have to learn in order for it to become their knowledge. The more rapidly knowledge changes, the more the recipients have to learn and the more society emphasizes this need to learn. The learning society – as a concept – is therefore the inevitable outcome of societies focusing on both information and knowledge. ... the learning society is associated with social change. The more prevalent or profound the changes that occur in a society, the greater the likelihood that it will be regarded as a learning society because its members have to learn in order to keep abreast with structural and work-based changes. There is a clear sense that there are two different types of knowledge: i) that necessary for social and cultural life, which once we have learned we can take for granted; and ii) that which is work-based in order to increase consumption or that which is necessary for the military defense of the people. (p. 29).

However, one aspect of a learning society not touched upon in Coffield's report is that of everyday learning, which occurs in what Beck (1992) calls reflexive modernity. Coffield (2000:22) makes an implicit reference to this when he claims that the phrase ‘We're all learning all the time’ is anodyne. The fact that we are being forced to learn all the time is actually the very basis of a learning society, rather than an educative one, something that underlies many of the projects in this programme. Society is changing so rapidly that many of the traditional educative organizations are not able to keep abreast with the new demands, and so individuals are forced to learn outside of the education system. Much of this is either unplanned or uncontrolled, or both, but it is an aspect crucial to contemporary society – for the learning society is also reflexive. This form of everyday learning is a crucial dimension of the learning society but it is one that cannot be controlled, something that is very important when we consider the complex nature of teaching. Only those who have disengaged from society are not really being forced to learn a great deal, and even they are still exposed to some of the forces of change. (pp. 30-31).

4. Learning organizations, glocalization, social capital

Learning organizations were slow to emerge because of the bureaucratic pressures of traditional organizational structures. Argyris & Schon (1978:26) claim that since the Second World War it has gradually become apparent not only to business firms but to all types of organizations that the requirements of organizational learning are growing. 

It is also the relationship between personal learning and the organization that Senge (1990) addressed in The Fifth Discipline. His first four disciplines are personal: how we think, what we want, how we interact and how we learn from one another (ibid.:11). His fifth discipline is systems thinking, which is social, when integration of thought and practice in a shared vision across the whole organization can stimulate change and efficiency in an organization. For Senge (ibid.:13), a learning organization is a place where individuals are ‘continually discovering how they can create their reality’ – it is a place of discovery, growth and development that results in more dynamic and creative solutions. (p. 33).

Systems theory is open to critical discussion on at least seven counts, according to Abercrombie et al. (2000:354–355): i) It cannot deal adequately with conflict or change, ii) Its assumptions about equilibrium on society are based on a conservative ideology, iii)  It is so abstract that its empirical references are hard to detect, iv) Its assumptions about value consensus are not well grounded, v) It is difficult to reconcile assumptions about structural procedures with a theory of action, vi) The teleological assumptions cannot explain underdevelopment or underutilization, and vii) It is tautologous and vacuous.(p. 34). 

... we could proceed to argue that the persons within the organization, and their learning, are not really considered within the framework of power. Indeed, change only happens when power is exerted within the organization itself – by managers! Hence, the learning organization appears to be a management theory for managers but it is weak conceptually, sociologically and educationally. It is necessary, therefore, to recognize that power is not the only issue that needs to be understood in the learning organization; it is also necessary to understand who the trendsetters are and how innovations spread through the company. People are important in the process, and it is people, as actors – change agents – who are played down in these discussions. Thus, it is important to return to re-examine the relationship between structure and action and learning. (p. 34).

The learning organization is different from bureaucracy, not because it does not have a hierarchy, but because the hierarchy have learned to create more open procedures for information processing so that they can facilitate or implement directly the outcomes that they and others in the organization have learned.(p. 35).

One of the other outcomes of globalization has been that we have become more aware of the local – a form of glocalization.Robertson 1995 in Featherstone, et.al. eds. Global Modernities, London: Sage p.31) makes the point that ‘there is an increasingly globe-wide discourse of locality, community, home, and the like’, and so it is not surprising that there should be a focus on the local. (pp. 35-36).

A learning city network evolved, and the European Commission (2003) supported the development of networks to promote and support lifelong learning locally and regionally. This is about social capital rather than human capital: Field et al. (2000:243) suggest that social capital offers ‘one way of apprehending and analysing the embeddedness of education in social networks’. But they go on to say that ‘it also challenges the dominant human capital approaches ... which concentrate on narrowly defined, short-term results or tidy analytical devices’. The outset of their argument is that social capital actually provides many opportunities for informal learning but that it is inherently narrowing – which is precisely the same type of argument that has existed for years about the advantages and disadvantages of living in small communities. However, Field et al. produce considerable evidence. Social capital takes us back to the ideas of the community and the community spirit, phenomena that have apparently declined tremendously as a result of the division of labour (Putman, 2000), although the same concern about the decline existed nearly a century ago. It might well be that this reflects the social process of constructing ideal communities, but we either see them as utopian and in the future or locate them in a dim and distant past! In both cases their function is to illustrate that we do not live in a perfect society – but then, we may never ever do so! What these studies have shown, however, is that there are community resources that can enrich human living, although they might have their drawbacks; these resources might aid informal learning, but through planning and learning we can create conditions and structures through which human living may be enriched. However, we cannot dictate that the community spirit will be created or learned.(p. 37).

成人教育・生涯学習ハンドブック――理論と実践

The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of The Learning Organization (English Edition)

Bowling Alone (English Edition)

Lifelong Learning: Education Across the Lifespan (English Edition)

#深いESD のフレームワーク

本研究「大学における「深いESD」プログラムの開発と評価に関する実証的研究」では、次のような枠組みとデザインで研究を進めます。

ESDからSustainable Educationへ

1. ESD (Education for Sustainable Development)

日本の学校では「国連ESDの10年」（2005-2014）によって文科省初中局とユネスコ国内委員会が連名で地方教委にレターを出したこともあり、ユネスコスクール・ネットワーク（ASPnet）登録数が世界一となり、ESD実践も盛んになりました。ESDに含まれる「Development」は「開発」と訳されまずが、当初はMEXTなどで「発展」の方が良いという指摘もあり「持続発展教育」という用語も生まれました。「内発的発展論」に持続可能性を見出す私は、「発展」推しです。

英語の議論では、そもそも「Development」には経済開発の志向性が強いという批判もあり、Education for Sustainabilityの方が妥当だという主張もあります。ただし、UNDPが毎年レポートするように「Human Development」は複合指標で示されることや、社会開発はインフラ整備だけではないことから、ESDでの「development」概念は広く捉えられています。「持続可能な開発のための教育」という定訳を書類や論文で私も使いますが、口頭で説明する時には「持続可能な開発または持続可能な社会構築に向けた教育」と表現します。

Routledge International Handbook of Sustainable Development (Routledge International Handbooks)

2. Education for Sustainability

「Education for Sustainability」は欧州、豪州、米州の研究者および実践家で使われ続けており、環境教育との関係も深いです。当然、「持続可能性」について議論する必要があります。何が持続可能性なのか？という議論は19世紀末からなされており、1980年代に国際的な「SD」定義が共有された後も議論が盛んに続いています。この10年ほどではOECDもウェルビーイングから持続可能性を提示しています。

How Was Life?: Global Well-being since 1820

こちらのエントリーでも示した（主にChap.16 とCh 13）とおり、グリーン経済が持続可能性と単純に理解されたりする現実も認めつつ、21世紀においては「sustainable citizenship」が重要とされています。今や、持続可能性について学ぶ方略を作るタイミングではなく、持続可能性に向けた教育を、さらには教育こそが持続可能性を意味する（あるいは変化・変容の担い手そのものを意味する）と存在論を含めた学習論へとつながります。これが次に示す「Sustainable Education」です。特定の開発のために教育がツールとして機能するという捉え方ではなく、私が使う「持続可能な社会構築」や「Sustainable Futures」も同様に目指しています。

3. Sustainable Education

学習者個人は生涯学習（学校教育、家庭教育、社会教育、ノンフォーマル教育）を通して、John Deweyが指摘したように、自らの存在を高めて（自己実現して）いきます。Peter Jarvisも存在のための学習を整理しており（UNESCOの"Learning to become"も参照）、「ESDを卒業する・止める」ことはありえないわけです。

本研究では、このESDを「深いESD (Deep ESD)」として捉えています。「深いESD」は『SDGs時代の教育(pp.42-44)』で永田佳之先生がUNESCO報告書"Wals, Arjen E.J. (2012). Shaping the education of tomorrow: 2012 full length report on the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development"(p.71)を参考に使い始めた用語で、協働研究のためご本人の許可を得て本研究では使っています（研究分担者で参画いただいています）。

Sustainable Education: Re-visioning Learning and Change (Schumacher Briefings Book 6) (English Edition)

Sustainability Education: Perspectives and Practice across Higher Education (English Edition)

変容学習 (Transformative Learning)

その「深いESD」のデザインと実践で大切なのが、変容学習。UNESCOの学習の4本柱（Learning to know, to do, to live together, and to be）に、ESDによって5本目（learning to transform oneself and society）が加わるとされるほど大きな意味を持ちます。

変容学習は、成人教育の分野で盛んに議論されてきました。グローバル化と情報化・知識基盤化によって生涯学習が学校内外の教育とシームレスに扱われ、子どもの発達段階にもよりますが、学習は成長とつながり扱われます。カッコよく言うと「生きることは学ぶこと」と。

Transformative Learning in Practice: Insights from Community, Workplace, and Higher Education (English Edition)

「学ぶこと＝自分を成長させること」 との議論は数多くあります。SDGs達成の中心には学習が位置づけられると北米比較国際教育学会大会で教えてもらったのが、Wagner教授でした。

Learning as Development: Rethinking International Education in a Changing World (English Edition)

SDGsには17つの目標が掲げられており、それらすべての達成には学習が関係しています。変容とは、個人の変容だけではなく、社会を変容させること、簡単にいうと私たちの「当たり前」を問い直すことになります。

Stewarding Sustainability Transformations: An Emerging Theory and Practice of SDG Implementation (English Edition)

大学という学習環境の変容

さて、本研究はアクション・リサーチとして実践の場を大学教育にセットしています。大学はフォーマルな教育機関ではありますが、私が長年行っているノンフォーマル教育研究からも示すことができるように、ノンフォーマル・インフォーマルな学習が展開される空間です。ここでも示したように、大学も変容が求められているといえます。

Higher Education and the Challenge of Sustainability: Problematics, Promise, and Practice (CERC Studies in Comparative Education) (English Edition)

Implementing Sustainability in the Curriculum of Universities: Approaches, Methods and Projects (World Sustainability Series) (English Edition)

大学の構内だけ変容すれば良いという捉え方ではありません。大学の社会的存在意義も重視するタイミングだと言えるでしょう。社会の変化へ対応するといった受け身ではなく、社会をより良いもの（持続可能な社会）へ変えるため主導していく生産を行うのが大学なのです。そこで必要になるが、上位システムを変えるには、副次システムを変化させることで、変化は変化を及ぼすという分析と変化を生み出す「レバレッジ（ツボ）」の判別となります。

システム思考

システム思考が良い点だと考えられるのは、「同じシステムだと、誰がやっても似たような結果になる」という一見すると人間開発を否定するような捉え方をしている点です。この意味は、誰もが同じように能力を伸ばす（スキル獲得する）という画一的な教育を、すべての社会的な・個人的な「病」を治す「万能薬」と見なさない、です。同時に、関係者個人の落ち度だけを追求するのではなく、システム（デザイン）に問題があるのではないかという分析をする点が良い点です。

本研究では開発デザインの段階と分析の段階において、直接的因果関係を扱うロジックモデルに加えて循環的因果関係システム思考の手法を用います。システム思考では、i)関連性が低いと思われる要素の影響を扱う、ii)強化する・弱める（バランス）の関係性を捉える、iii)発生する時差を考慮する、そしてiv)限られた資源下で変化を生じさせる「ツボ」を探します。

Systems Thinking for Social Change: A Practical Guide to Solving Complex Problems, Avoiding Unintended Consequences, and Achieving Lasting Results

システム思考に対して、概念的すぎる、保守的なバランス（変化させない意図）を認めるなどの批判もあります。特に、人によって認識（「メンタルモデル」）が異なるため、正答が不明瞭などは弱点です。そのため、ESD実践においては、当事者・関係者がプロセス（加工と過程）に参加することが重要になります。特に、評価においては、それが顕著です。

評価論

ESDの評価は、学習成果（learning outcomes）の議論だけに焦点化しても曖昧であるという議論が続いています。SDGsの第4目標にある 4.7項目は、ホットな議論対象です。

しかし、開発学でいうエンパワメントや参画、教育学でいう能力開発という点からみても、ノンフォーマル教育の実践などにおける蓄積が十分に役立ちそうです。既に参加型評価がプロセス全体を価値を創造する評価活動として見なす手法があります。本研究では、米原あき先生と一緒に研究しています。

プログラム評価―対人・コミュニティ援助の質を高めるために (ワードマップ)

エンパワーメント評価の原則と実践: 教育、福祉、医療、企業、コミュニティ介入プログラムの改善と活性化にむけて

大学での実践

以上は、フレームワークの紹介でしたが、具体的に何をやるんだ？と感じられた方のために、最後に少しだけ：3つの実践を行っています。

1. 浸透型（分野横断）プログラム開発
   

   これは、上智大学の「Sophia Program for Sustainable Futures」で、私もこんな恥さらしをしています（クリスタルプロンプターがあれば、いや事前にもっと練習すればこんなに噛まなかっただろうに）。

2. 実地型（スタディツアー）
   見原礼子先生 がアジアと欧州に展開されているフィールドスタディや丸山が行う「持続可能性スタディツアー」などが本研究に含まれます。見原先生も丸山も、欧州ムスリム移民の抱える価値観に対する包摂性と固有性を扱っており、教育がどう可能性を作るかを追いかけてきました。
   

   www.hss.nagasaki-u.ac.jp

3. 包摂機関型（学習環境とキャンパス改善）
   こちらは、本研究期間が始まってから扱う内容です。例えば、上智大学の場合、SDGsキャンパスも含まれますし、学生のサークル活動（Green Sophia）も含みます。

長いエントリーを最後までご覧いただきありがとうございました。「深いESD」研究は、2020年4月から始まったばかりです。COVID-19感染拡大により実際には6月からのスタートですが、人類史と自然環境の観点からも持続可能性に直結する課題として、本研究でも扱っていく予定です。

皆様からのご指導・ご助言をよろしくお願い申し上げます。

科研費データベースから先行研究を位置づける

2005年以降の科研費による研究において「ESD」をキーワードとし、本研究（大学における「深いESD」プログラムの開発と評価に関する実証的研究）に関連する先行研究を整理

以下、敬称略で失礼します

1. アプローチ：変容学習・ウェルビーイング・システム思考・アート

自己変容をもたらすケアリングを通した多文化共生：ESDの適用可能性に着目して

2019-04-01 – 2023-03-31

曽我 幸代 名古屋市立大学, 大学院人間文化研究科, 准教授

学習者のウェルビーイングに資するノンフォーマル教育の国際比較研究

2013-04-01 – 2016-03-31

丸山 英樹  上智大学, グローバル教育センター, 准教授

ドイツの地理教育における「人間-環境システム論」を導入したESD教材開発

2011 – 2012

山本 隆太  早稲田大学, 教育・総合科学学術院, 助手

芸術教育による感性に働きかけるＥＳＤの構築～代替案の思考能力の育成～

2012-04-01 – 2015-03-31

神野 真吾 千葉大学, 教育学部, 准教授

2. 評価の開発

SDG世界の幕開け：サステイナビリティ評価で国際社会は変わるか？

2016-04-01 – 2018-03-31

長尾 眞文  国際連合大学サステイナビリティ高等研究所, 客員教授 

高等教育における「持続可能な開発の為の教育」評価可能な枠組開発と普及構造の構築

2011-04-01 – 2015-03-31

GANNON Tracey (GANNON TraceyJ)  京都大学, 地球環境学堂, 准教授

SDGsを目指した持続可能な地域の形成条件とESD評価方法に関する実証研究

2019-04-01 – 2022-03-31

湯本 浩之  宇都宮大学, 留学生・国際交流センター, 教授

風土知に基づく持続発展教育カリキュラムの構成原理とパフォーマンス評価の研究

2014-04-01 – 2019-03-31

岸本 実  滋賀大学, 教職大学院, 教授

持続可能な未来のための教育における協同的社会参加と形成的評価モデルの有効性

2013-04-01 – 2017-03-31
若菜 博 札幌国際大学, 人文学部, 教授

日本のシュタイナー学校における公共的総合的な教育課程と自己評価法の開発と検証

2012-04-01 – 2016-03-31

吉田 敦彦  大阪府立大学, 人間社会学部, 教授

3. 大学生を対象

大学教育における「対話」―持続可能でレジリアントな社会を創る市民育成の視点から

 2018-04-01 – 2022-03-31

  二ノ宮リム さち  東海大学, 現代教養センター, 准教授

大学生を対象とするSD実践力としての科学リテラシー育成プログラム開発と評価

2010 – 2012

三宅 志穂  神戸女学院大学, 人間科学部, 准教授

4. アクション・リサーチ 

大学教養教育におけるＥＳＤとしての地域活性化ワークショップの展開

 2011 – 2013

  加藤 修  千葉大学, 教育学部, 教授

伝統知を用いたESDモデルの社会実装と国連「SDGs」における主流化の手法研究

2016-04-01 – 2020-03-31

古澤 礼太  中部大学, 中部高等学術研究所, 准教授

5. 環境教育・環境学との連関

ドイツにおける環境教育学の視座に関する研究

2019-04-01 – 2024-03-31

若林 身歌 大阪府立大学, 高等教育推進機構, 准教授

持続可能な市民社会を構築する環境教育思想に関する基礎研究

2011-04-28 – 2015-03-31

今村 光章  岐阜大学, 教育学部, 教授

環境に配慮した持続可能なライフスタイルを実現する環境教育の構築に関する研究

2011 – 2013

木村 美智子 茨城大学, 教育学部, 教授

6. 国際比較

「持続可能な開発のための教育」のイノベーションに関する日本・スウェーデン比較研究

2017-06-30 – 2020-03-31

北村 友人 東京大学, 大学院教育学研究科(教育学部), 准教授

ベーシック・インカムとＥＳＤとの哲学的連関についての日独共同研究

2014-04-01 – 2017-03-31

  別所 良美  名古屋市立大学, 大学院人間文化研究科, 教授

Sustainable Education: Re-visioning Learning and Change (Schumacher Briefings Book 6) (English Edition)

Higher Education for Sustainability: Leicht, Heiss & Byun eds. 2018. Issues & Trends in ESD

Leicht, A., Heiss, J. & Byun, W.J. eds. (2018). Issues & Trends in Education for Sustainable Development (PDF)

ESD is commonly understood as education that encourages changes in knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes to enable a more sustainable and just society for all. ESD aims to empower and equip current and future generations to meet their needs using balanced and integrated approach to the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of SD. 

In order to deliver diverse and evolving issues, ESD uses innovative pedagogy, encouraging teaching and learning in an interactive, learner-centered way that enables exploratory, action-oriented, and transformative learning. Learners are enabled to think critically and systematically develop values and attitudes for a sus. future. (p.7)

Today, ESD is arguably at the heart of the 2030 Agenda for SD and its 17 SDGs (United Nations 2016?). The SDGs recognize that all countries must stimulate action in the following key areas - people, planet, prosperity, peace, and partnership - to tackle the global challenges that are crucial for the survival of humanity. (p.8)

Beck, U. 2009. Critical theory of world risk society: a cosmopolitan vision. Constellations, 16(1): 3-22. Oxford: Blackwell.
Edwards, R. 1997. Changing places? Flexibility, Lifelong Learning and a Learning Society. London: Routledge.
Gough, S. and Scott, W. 2006. Education and sustainable development: a political analysis. Educational Review, 58(3): 273-290.
Scott, W.A.H. and Oulton, C.R. 1999. Environmental education: arguing the case for multiple approaches. Educational Studies, 25(1): 119-125.
Sterling, S. 2016. A commentary on education and Sustainable Development Goals. Journal of Education for Sustainable Development, 10(2): 208-213.
UNESCO. 2013. Education for Sustainable Development (ESD): a sound investment to accelerate African development. Flyer. http://archive. ias.unu.edu/resource_centre/TICADV-ESD-flyer-2p.pdf (accessed 20 February 2017).
UNESCO. 2014a. Shaping the Future We Want: UN Decade for Sustainable Development (2005-2014) Final Report. Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc. unesco.org/images/0023/002301/230171e.pdf (accessed 28 January 2017).
UNESCO. 2014b. UNESCO Roadmap for Implementing the Global Action Programme on Education for Sustainable Development. Paris: UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002305/230514e.pdf (accessed 3 February 2017).
UNESCO. 2017. Education for Sustainable Development Goals: Learning Objectives. Education 2030. Paris: UNESCO.

Part I: Understanding ESD

Chapter 1. From Agenda 21 to Target 4.7: the development of ESD

Under SDGs Goal 4, it is widely recognized that one of the most ambitious, interesting and challenging targets is Target 4.7, which aims to: 

by 2030 ensure all learners acquire knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including among others through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development 

In addition, ESD can serve as a means to pursue the achievement of all the SDGs...this chapter details the development of ESD by examining two strands, SD stakeholders to use education as an instrument to achieve SD & ed stakeholders to integrate SD principles into ed systems, are equally important for ESD.

1-1. Integrating ed into SD

...the pivotal role education plays in SD. It was at the Tbilisi conference in 1977 that the essential role of "education in environment matters" as stated in the recommendations of the 1972 Stockholm Conference was fully explored. 

1992 Rio,

1994 the Environmental and Population Education and Information for Human Development project (EPD) was launched. EPD went beyond formal teaching to propose education via a number of channels (schools, business, the media, communities).

2012 Rio+20 "SD cannot be achieved by technological solutions, political regulation or financial instruments alone. Achieving sustainable development requires a change in the way we think and act, and consequently a transition to sustainable lifestyles, consumption and production patterns. Only education and learning at all levels and in all social contexts can bring about this critical change’ (UNESCO 2012a: 13). The Rio+20 outcome document The Future We Want subsequently contained strong commitments to education as important for a green economy, for work and social protection, and for sustainability generally.

Education was deemed to be one of the most powerful tools at hand to drive the transformational changes necessary for SD, but to realize this potential, ed systems need to be flexible, culturally sensitive, relevant and suited to changing people's values and behaviours (World We Want 2013: iv).

2016 GEM report highlighted the urgent need for new approaches, the importance of long-term commitments to SDG4, and the need for radical change in ways of thinking about education as a force for human well-being and global development (UNESCO, 2016a). This suggests that the potential of education to transform our world cannot be realized unless education systems embrace SD. (p.30)

Table 1 shows how education is related to other SDG targets.

1-2. Integrating SD into Ed

the focus of global dev. on ed was the provision of basic ed for all.

‘UNESCO reaffirms a humanistic and holistic vision of education as fundamental to personal and socio-economic development. The objective of such education must be envisaged in a broad perspective that aims at enabling and empowering people to meet their basic individual needs, fulfil their personal expectations and contribute to the achievement of their communities and countries’ socio-economic development objectives’ (UNESCO 2013a).

1-3. UNDESD & GAP on ESD

2009 the Bonn Declaration represented a turning point in the visibility and understanding of ESD by ministers and provided the shift to the second phase. It also emphasized the importance of investing in ESD, referring to it as a "life-saving measure" for the future that empowers people for change (UNESCO 2009:1). While recognizing that ‘education is a significant factor in improving human well-being’, the Declaration recommended promoting ESD as ‘an investment in the future’, which is directly related to the two processes of linking education and SD.

2014 The Aichi-Nagoya Declaration stresses that: ‘ESD is an opportunity and a responsibility that should engage both developed and developing countries in intensifying efforts for poverty eradication, reduction of inequalities, environmental protection and economic growth, with a view to promoting equitable, more sustainable economies and societies benefiting all countries’ (UNESCO, 2014e).

2015-2019 GAP, its overall goal to generate and scale up action in all levels and areas of ed and learning to accelerate progress towards SD (UNESCO 2014d). Two objectives:  the first directed at the education sector ‘to reorient education and learning so that everyone has the opportunity to acquire the knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that empower them to contribute to SD’. The second objective addresses all other sectors relevant to sustainable development and requests them ‘to strengthen education and learning in all agendas, programmes and activities that promote SD.’

Chapter 2. Learning to transform the world: key competencies in ESD

ESD aims to develop competencies that enable and empower individuals to reflect on their own actions by taking into account their current and future social, cultural, economic and environmental impacts from both a local and a global perspective...ESD should be understood as an integral part of quality education and lifelong learning. (p.39)

ESD consists of holistic and transformational education that addresses learning content and outcomes, pedagogy and the learning environment. 

2-1. ESD as transformative & competence-based ed

Individuals need to be able to collaborate, speak up, and act for positive change within the world (UNESCO 2015a). These people might be called "sustainability citizens (Wals 2015; Wals & Lgenglet 2016).  Since the late 1990s, the discourse on how to educate such sustainability citizens has shifted from an input orientation, focusing on lists of essential educational content, to an outcome-based competence approach (Adomßent and Hoffmann, 2013; Wiek, Withycombe and Redman, 2011). Instead of promoting certain behaviours and ways of thinking (‘ESD 1’ ’instrumental approach’), an emancipatory concept of ESD focuses, in particular, on ‘building capacity to think critically about [and beyond] what experts say and to test sustainable development ideas’ and ‘exploring the contradictions inherent in sustainable living’(‘ESD 2’) (Vare and Scott (2007) distinguish between ESD with an instrumental approach (‘ESD 1’) and ESD with an emancipatory approach (‘ESD 2’).)

2-2. Dev. of sus. competencies

• OECD-DeSeCo
• Gestaltungskompetenz (shaping competencies)
• Key comp. for SD
• Sustainability comp.
• Key comp. in sus.
• Sustainability core comp

1. Systems thinking competency
2. Anticipatory comp
3. Normative comp
4. Strategic comp
5. Collaboration comp
6. Critical thinking comp
7. Self-awareness comp
8. Integrated PS comp

This list highlights competencies that are particularly essential for sus. and which have not been the main focus of formal education. While each comp. has its own qualities and areas of relevance, they are mutually interdependent...Furthermore, sustainability performance is related to an individual’s environment, understood as opportunities to perform that are beyond the individual’s control. ... Leaning on the capability approach, Nussbaum (2000) emphasizes the crucial importance of governance institutions in providing opportunity structures that give individuals the capability to act. In other words, ‘capabilities could be understood as the set of real opportunities [...] to be what they have reason to value’ (Lozano et al., 2012: 4).

2-3. Main implications of ESD for the practice of ed & pedagogy

1. Whole-institution approach
2. Action-oriented transformative pedagogy: A learner-centered approach, Action-oriented learning, Transformative learning - ...participatory teaching and learning methods empower learners to take action to promote SD. ... educational institutions and educators should foster partnerships at the local, national, and international level. 
3. Need for assessment of ESD learning outcomes: Assessing exposure to SD, Assessing sus-related choices & actions/ Box 5: learner's progress to their intended outcomes, strengths, feedback, guide decisions about school grading. There are many ways to assess LO. (p.53)
4. Key comp for ESD educators: Teacher ed must meet this challenge by reorienting itself towards ESD / Box 7: Learning objectives for teachers to promote ESD (p.56)

Chapter 3. Key themes in ESD

• SDGs
• Climate change
• Biodiversity
• Sus production & consumption
• Reduction of poverty

Relating the key themes to national & local challenges (p.82)

Highlighting the interrelationships between key ESD themes (p.83)

Part II: Implementing ESD

Chapter 4. Advancing policy to achieve quality ESD

ESD is not defined by generic "ed" on the specialized topic of SD; rather, it is constructed from a series of specialized ed pedagogies that aim to integrate and address a wide variety of topics through the SD lens...ESD is its holistic packaging and application of these various educational theories and pedagogies with a perspective towards transformative learning. 

4-1. The Delors Report

Learning: the Treasure Within (1996), heralds ed as "a principal means" to achieve social transformation and through this "foster a deeper and more harmonious form of human dev. and thereby to reduce poverty, exclusion, ignorance, oppression and war (Delars 1996:13)

1. Learning to know
2. Learning to do
3. Learning to live together
4. Learning to be (International Commission on Education for the 21st Century 1996:86)
5. Learning to transform oneself and society, to empower people with the values and abilities to assume responsibility for creating and enjoying a sustainable future (Schaeffer, S. 2006. Beyond ‘learning to live together’: The key to education for sustainable development. Presentation at the UNESCO Expert Meeting on ESD: ‘Reorienting Education to Address Sustainability’, 1-3 May 2006, Kanchanaburi, Thailand.)

4-2. 2009 the mid-term review of DESD

• ESD as a means to transfer ‘appropriate’ sets of knowledge attitudes, values and behaviour; and
• ESD as a means to develop people’s capacities and opportunities to engage with sustainability issues so that they themselves can determine alternative ways of living (UNESCO, 2009a: 27).

4-3. ESD policy & educational assessment

• how to evaluate the current status of ESD implementation in relation to sustainability learning outcomes;
• how to identify and strengthen institutions to efficiently and effectively conduct M&E (besides developing dedicated tools), in order to produce a systematic review of ESD implementation;
• how to present the results so they can be used effectively for subsequent curriculum and pedagogical reforms and identify key lessons for further mainstreaming;
• how to synchronize and synergize the components of ESD and the domains of the Learning Metrics Task Force (LMTF, 2013) to broaden the scope/content of international assessment tests such as PISA and TIMMS (Lenglet, 2015); and
• how to decide which trajectory of those available to M&E of ESD to follow, based on careful evaluation of the benefits and deficiencies of each approach.

Chapter 5. How are learning and training environments transforming with ESD?

...the integration of learning-led change found in whole-school approaches that emphasize inclusive school governance, pedagogy and sustainable campus management, as well as cooperation with partners and broader communities. These approaches are changing learning environments in significant ways.

As ESD learning environments change, they appear to be becoming more inclusive and action-orientated. Collaborative learning is also being supported to a greater extent in learning networks and whole-school approaches.

1. Case study 1: A new ESD centre with a national sustainability mandate (Al Ain, Abu Dhabi)
2. Case study 2: Course-activated social learning networks (Grahamstown, South Africa)
3. Case study 3: Using multimedia for intergenerational learning (Mexico)
4. Case study 4: Positive learner-led actions as ‘Handprints for Change’ (India)
5. Case study 5: Stepping up to the Sustainable Development Goals through a sustainability commons (Lesotho)
6. Case study 6: Developing whole-school action learning (Howick, South Africa)
7. Case study 7: Co-engaged evaluation in Regional Centres of Expertise (Africa region and Japan)

The evident transformations in learning environments using whole-institution approaches include:

• engaging participants in a situated, critical review of current knowledge (Cases 1-7)
• supporting communities in networked learning activities over time (Cases 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7)
• enabling participants to undertake open-ended change projects (Cases 3, 5 and 6)
• supporting deliberative, learning-led re-visioning of future sustainability in learning networks (Cases 3, 5, 6 and 7). 

5-1. Education/learning theory to frame action learning environments for ESD

An adequate mix of learning theory for ESD actions for co-engaged and change-orientated learning has been slow to emerge. Learning theories were widely contested in the 1970s and 1980s when education and training were seen as two very different processes... the distinction between education and training is decreasing and more process-orientated approaches to learning and change are appearing (Engestrom and Sannino, 2014). .. the learning environments reflect better situated, more deliberative and more open-ended orientations. (p.114)

The method which people use in acquiring knowledge is functionally interdependent with, and thus inseparable from, the substance of the knowledge they possess, and especially from their basic image of the world. If this image is different, the method they devise for acquiring knowledge is, as a matter of course, different too (Elias, 1987: 64).

...The proposition is evident in the participatory expansion of ESD as processes of learning-to-change. For a schematic overview of ESD as an expansive social learning process or what may be described as situated action learning see figure 1.

Fig. 1: The 5Ts of Action Learning for framing a deliberative nexus learning environment: Think(Reflect & revise: Cognitive), Touch (Fieldwork encounters), Take Action(Social-Emotional), Tune-in (Plan together: Behavioural), & Talk (Dialogue). (WESSA field centres)

This approach is informed by the cultural-historical learning theory of Lev Vygotsky and the research of Yrjo Engestrom and Annalisa Sannino (2010) ... This perspective highlights how engaging with and resolving contradictions in existing knowledge is a reflexive and expansive learning process. Learning-led change happens as participants uncover and resolve contradictions in their worlds and in how all individuals are living together in a changing world. (p.115)

A key focus here is not only participatory learning as a reflexive social process, but the centrality of reflexive learner agency. Learner agency includes the emerging capability of learners to use their knowledge to bring about change together. Roy Bhaskar (2016), building on Elias, notes that the real world ‘means and media’ (agency and imagery) of learners need to be deployed in learning transactions, as ‘It is that which we must take into account (fallibility) in order to act, and that which in acting, in our activity, we reproduce and transform’ (Bhaskar, 2016: 69).

Wenger, McDermott & Snyder (2002) accentuate the importance of situated culture in learning... how humans can learn together in ‘communities of practice’.

Drawing on Vygotskian learning theory, Anne Edwards (2014) developed task-sequencing tools for learning environments in curriculum settings. ... emphasizes how the acquisition of knowledge of society is essential for participatory learning to become learner-led learning that fosters change... Many of the current perspectives informing ESD still reflect early concepts such as ‘experiential learning cycles’ (Kolb, 1984), and the reflexivity implicit in the ‘double-loop learning’ of Schon (1983). ‘Social learning’, discussed by authors such as Wals (2007), also provides a useful synthesis to inform education and training environments as sites of transformative learning. Implicit in this is an interest in researching transformative social learning that addresses the transition to sustainable futures (Lotz-Sisitka et al., 2014).

A key part of any ESD learning experience at a WESSA field centre... A good mediator
of co-engaged learning will always seek to ‘bring forward’ or ‘mobilize’ prior knowledge and understanding among the participants so that they can connect their understanding to the learning experiences to come. This is also commonly the case in problem-based and enquiry learning in curriculum settings. A key point is to situate the matter of concern in a shared context so as to establish the focus for learning. This could include a curriculum topic, a local concern, a conservation issue or risk, or a practice as a nexus4 issue that needs to be resolved (see the central circle of Figure 1).(p.118)

5-2. Case studies of transforming learning environments

• mainstreaming sustainability concerns
• becoming more inclusive & participatory
• enabling a critical review of received knowledge
• supporting learner-led re-visioning activities
• sustaining networked learning over time
• enabling practical change projects and
• the inclusion of whole institution approaches.

Case 7: Co-engaged evaluation in Regional Centres of Expertise (Africa region and Japan) describes a hybrid tool to document and review learning actions and their outcomes. the emergence of a hybrid framework for co-engaged evaluation in RCEs. Framing a toolkit for collaborative assessment: The perspectives that were drawn resulted from Constitutive, Appreciative and Developmental Evaluation, as well as Wenger’s approach to Value Creation Assessment in a community of practice (Wenger, Trayner and de Laat, 2011). The toolkit drew on this range of evaluation traditions to raise probing questions for documenting and reviewing learning actions and their outcomes. The questions were designed to be adapted to different needs and contexts.

5-3. Conclusions & emerging grasp of ESD

Most notable are the shifts to situated, co-engaged, participatory and inclusive learning approaches in whole institution (school) critical reflection and innovation practices.

• situated relevance: located and connected and relevant to the topic
• co-engaged, learning-led change: learning together, rather than transmissive, top-down learning. Learning-led change means developing understanding where learning together about the topic leads to greater understanding and action.
• action learning networks: groups of people actively learning and taking action together through connected networks.
• ethics-led whole institution change projects: where learning is led by values and the whole institution is involved in changing the situation so that it is more sustainable.

Chapter 6. Building capacities of educators and trainers

Focused professional development opportunities are an essential means
to empower educators to teach ESD. Effective educational transformation depends on motivating teachers to bring about change not only in their instructional practices, but also in their surrounding school and community environments. Through targeted development approaches, educators explore popular education theory perspectives (Freire, 1970) that encourage learners to examine their lives critically and take action to change social conditions. 

6-1. Developing key competencies: the UNECE report

ESD characteristics:

1. A holistic approach that promotes integrative thinking and practice;
2. Envisioning change as a means to explore alternative futures, learn from the past and inspire engagement in the present; and
3. Achieving transformation in the way that people learn and in the systems that support learning.  

6-2. Relevant concepts & theories in teacher education literature

• Initial teacher training/education: a pre-service training programme undertaken before teachers enter the classroom, usually provided by a university or teaching/educating facility;
• Induction programmes: a supervised ‘apprenticeship’ learning opportunity designed to support novice teachers while teaching, usually during the first year in the classroom, normally organized by individual schools or as part of a university training programme;
• Teacher professional development or continuing professional development: in-service courses and training activities for practising teachers offered by a variety actors including: private companies/institutions, colleges and universities or MOE.

6-3. Proponents of transformative learning theory

• Paulo Freire (1970): the psychological aspects of transformative learning through the process as conscientization
• Jack Mezirow (1991): the perspective transformation by critical reflection to encourage individual self-actualization ...the outcomes for both teachers and learners would result in ‘individuals who are more inclusive in their perceptions of the world, able to differentiate increasingly its various aspects, open to other points of view, and able to integrate differing dimensions of their experiences into meaningful and holistic relationships’.

6-4. Transforming teacher education to promote sus futures

Where to apply the transformative principles of ESD? By examining the effect that existing systems (economic, political, social, industrial, etc.) have on people, the planet and prosperity (the 3Ps). Factors that threaten the existence or sustainability of any of the 3Ps must be applied and integrated into daily teaching and learning priorities.

Key areas of consideration for teacher training and preparation for ESD include: respect for all lifeforms (people, plants and animals); preservation of the planet’s natural resources (the oceans and freshwater, the air and land) and responsible consumption strategies that support prosperity. This cannot be achieved without the political will and insight to work towards the four basic aims of ESD (USTESD, 2013):
1. Improve access to and retention in quality basic education;
2. Reorient educational priorities to apply ESD goals and objectives (3Ps);
3. Improve public understanding and awareness of sustainability;
4. Provide training to different sectors within the learning community (USTESD, 2013: 7).

6-5. Progress of ESD teacher training objectives

• CRDA model: EE for participatory & relevant professional development guides and resources. Cost-effective by the resource is disseminated.
• The Action Research model: key agents of change within their institutions. 
• The Whole-of-System model: seek new curriculum content and/or pedagogical process, as well as change occurs in a multi-faceted and system-wide manner (Henderson & Tilbury 2004). Its success depends on its ability to leverage both top-down & bottom-up approaches to change simultaneously.
• MOOC on ESD: 

Chapter 7. Youth on the move: intentions and tensions

"Youth": 15-24 (UNESCO 2017), but regional and local definitions of youth vary and extend up to 35.

ESD movements developed for youth:  policy frameworks, initiatives within formal schooling system, social innovations ...

Key trends towards the mainstreaming of ESD into social structures:

The 2015 report Rethinking Education: Towards a Global Common Good?(PDF) reframes education as a response to current matters of global concern. 

Tensions arising within ESD for youth: engaging with utopianism, absence of youth involvement at political & policy levels, receiving positioning of youth, and responsibilization (individualization & attribution of responsibility in youth).

ESD movements led by youth

radical systems critique: rising cultures as Occupy e.g.

Youthful idealism

Mainstreaming & structural integration

Excluding the other

Emergent reflexive processes for working w/ youth

Finding the balance between educating young people and enabling them to challenge and shape the movements... is neither straightforward nor simple, and there are no easy formulas. However, many groups around the world have begun to develop transformative and transgressive approaches to ESD work with youth. 

• Intergenerational learning: bring people of various ages together to participate in purposeful and mutually beneficial activities.
• Counter dialogues & change-oriented dialogue: engage with each other around a common area of concern. 
• Nurturing maker & re-imaginer cultures: youth in re-imagining their reality, and build the ideas, tools, and social process to realize their re-imagined visions of the world.
• Co-engaged learning: social learning encounters in response to complex & uncertain contextual & global risk. 
• Collaborative social mapping (CSM): opportunities for different groups within a community to work together to build a shared understanding of communal space
• Change-oriented learning
• Supporting & strengthening the development of transgressive competencies: the ability to destabilize and challenge normalized views, power structures and dynamics, and voices of authority.

Chapter 8. Accelerating sustainable solutions at the local level 

Table 2 Analytical framework for the sustainability of solutions

Characteristics of ESD; Questions for analysis

• Relevance to local context; How is the solution addressing real, perceived and felt problems?
• Contribution to the common good; Who is truly benefiting and how? How are the inter-generational, cultural and socio-economic gaps being filled?
• Skills and competencies for sustainability; What skills were critical for sustainability? What competencies were developed?
• Intersectoral cooperation; Which government and development sectors collaborated? How and why? How is sustainability being integrated and is it holistic?
• Cultivating hope for a better future; What hope is generated by the solution? Is it true and long-lasting?

Chapter 9. Scaling ESD

Chapter 10. Monitoring ESD: lessons learned and ways forward

A main requirement of effective M&E in education and learning is clear objectives, otherwise called competencies, which stem from defined concepts in a subject. However, the more dynamic aspects of ESD cannot be boxed into a measurable definition...

10-1. Monitoring achievements & challenges

History: Top-down approach to M&E (UNESCO 2014a; 184), input-output thinking often hand-in-hand with an overly focused, sometimes myopic conversion about indicators. MEEG developed various ESD indicators that "one-size will not fit all". ..the process of developing holistic, multipronged M&E systems for tracking ESD is still in the early stages.

10-2. Current mechanisms

Forward-facing: what exists now? SDG Target 4.7  aims to ensure inclusive and equitable quality ed and promote LLL opportunities for all. The global indicator for 4.7 and 12.8 (learning through public info. campaigns and informal activities promoting awareness) is the same. Similar way of liking monitoring of 13.3. with 4.7 and 12.8 could also be explored. 

10-3. Key structural & institutional global M&E mechanisms

• Monitoring the SDGs: the inclusion of non-formal, informal learning that often takes place in community settings remains to be explored in the future discussion on the indicators of 4.7.
• Monitoring on the basis of the 1974 Recommendation (Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms) for 4.7.1
• Large-scale student assessments: IEA-ICCS, OECD-PISA
• Monitoring through UIS & the GEMR

The dynamic, emergent aspects of ESD matter a lot, but are very difficult to monitor well and go mostly unmeasured.

Improving monitoring of ESD: more data is necessary between inputs & outputs (p.229). Qualitative approach should also link to global monitoring. 

What about ESD elsewhere?: out-of-school children, youth, and adults. 

Routledge Handbook of International Education and Development (Routledge International Handbooks)

International Research on Education for Sustainable Development in Early Childhood (International Perspectives on Early Childhood Education and Development)

Routledge Handbook of Higher Education for Sustainable Development (Routledge International Handbooks)

Education for Sustainable Development: What was achieved in the DESD? (English Edition)

Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning, Chapter 1

2020 Spring Term, GS course Textbook:

Jarvis, P. (2010) Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice, Routledge.

Adult Education and Lifelong Learning: Theory and Practice

Chapter 1. The Person as Learner

大意「学習は存在論的現象、学ぶことと生きることは不可分」

The evolutionary & social context of the person

At the heart of social living, it has been assumed in the West that people are born as individuals and that as they grow and develop, they learn to be social human beings – but this is one of the flaws in Enlightenment thinking (see Hall, 1976; Gray, 1995; Jarvis, 2008).

Throughout this book we will take it as read that we have evolved and that there are aspects of our evolution which affect our learning (p. 2).

The nature of the person

The body:

The self:

The mind-body relationship

1. dualism
2. mind-brain identity
3. logical or analytical behavirourism
4. functionalism
5. non-reductive monism

Being and learning

Think of the beat of music, the beat of a drum – it is a universally appreciated sound, but why is it universal? Perhaps because while we were in the womb, we were exposed to the sound of the beat of our mother's heart; we learned it pre-consciously.

The need to learn is more basic than the need to know; it is fundamental to our humanity, as Dewey pointed out:

[L]ife means growth, a living creature lives as truly and positively at one stage as another, with the same intrinsic fullness and the same absolute claims. Hence education means the enterprise of supplying the conditions which insure growth, or adequacy of life, irrespective of age. (1916:51)(p. 12)

when I asked how many of them had included smell in their definitions of learning, it turned out that none had. Learning had occurred incidentally and they were unaware of the learning but they were aware of the outcome of their learning – their tacit knowledge (p. 13).

Learning social being: socialization

From our earliest days we learn to imitate; Tomasello (1999:52) regards children as ‘imitation machines’. ... By imitation we begin to learn the subculture of the group, organization, etc. ... Traditionally, every society has produced its own culture, which is carried by human beings and transmitted both through social interaction and through the educational system. Culture, in this context, refers to the sum totality of knowledge, values, beliefs, etc. Of a social group. It is in the process of socialization that individuals learn their local culture. There is a sense in which some facets of education may be regarded as part of the process of socialization, although the former is usually viewed as a more formal process than the latter. Consequently, it is possible to understand precisely how Lawton (1973:21) could regard the curriculum as ‘a selection from culture’. Obviously, the process of acquiring the local culture is very significant during childhood, both through socialization and education. However, sociologists regard socialization as a lifetime process having at least two aspects: primary socialization is ‘the first socialization an individual undergoes ... through which he [sic] becomes a member of society; secondary socialization is any subsequent process that inducts an already socialized individual into new sectors of the objective world of his society’ (Berger & Luckman 1991: Loc 2570).  (pp. 13-14). 

It is not difficult, however, to recognize that in a society where the rate of social change is very slow, such as pre-industrial Europe or a primitive tribe, it would be feasible for individuals to learn most of the cultural knowledge, norms and values necessary for them to assume their place in that society during childhood. ... From the onset of the Industrial Revolution, with the introduction of more sophisticated technology, the rate of social change increased. Indeed, change is endemic to technological societies. This means that primary socialization is insufficient. Secondary socialization becomes more significant and it is certainly more relevant for us as educators of adults. As we grow and develop, so we join other groups having their own subcultures, such as schools, leisure clubs and work, and in each of these we go through a process of secondary socialization. We learn to be a student, a club member and a worker; in other words, we learn specific behaviour associated with our position; new knowledge, new ideas, new values and new practices all have to be confronted. However, as Turner (1962, in Rose, A. (ed.) Human Behavior and Social Processes, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul) showed, the process of secondary socialization is not merely a process of imitating the behaviour of other role players (behaviourist learning); we are also agents in this learning process. He (ibid.:38) showed that ‘role behavior in formal organizations becomes a working compromise between the formalized role prescriptions and the more flexible operation of the role-taking process’. It is interactive rather than merely imitative and therefore we learn in more complex ways. This becomes a lifetime process and is part of the informal learning of lifelong learning. (pp. 14-15).  

成人教育・生涯学習ハンドブック――理論と実践

ゼミ生へ（2020年度）

新年度開始が遅くなり（開始予定5/25（月））、刻々と変化する状況に不安も高まりますが、自分と家族の健康と安全を第一にして、今できることに集中していきましょう！

自宅や部屋でできることは、ストレッチ・ヨガや筋トレなどの他、しっかり読み込むことも挙げられます。筋トレ同様、読書習慣は一生モノの財産になりますし、自分探しに役立ちます。体調管理と同じく、読んだ本について簡単にコメントを自分でまとめておくことを習慣にしてみてください。そのコメントは、近い将来、自己対話の軌跡になるはずです。

さて、以下は丸山ゼミでの活動において、次のI〜IIIを確認してみてください！

I. 自分の問い（My Question）を追求

- 個人の努力とチームワーク

個人でやること

情報生産者になる (ちくま新書)

1. ゼミでの議論に積極参加（ゼミはSlack 経由で始める）
2. 「My Question」を常に考える（上野本から）
3. 文献調査（先行研究・情報収集）年間100冊は読む
4. 今年度はオンライン講義もオススメ（以下、特選）
   English for Journalism
   The Ethics of Eating
   English for Business and Entrepreneurship
   Introduction to Digital Humanities
   Gamification
   Design: Creation of Artifacts in Society
   The Age of Sustainable Development（←丸山ゼミでは1年生に一通り勧めてる）
   The Science of Well-Being
   Network Dynamics of Social Behavior　
   Social Norms, Social Change I
   CitiesX: The Past, Present and Future of Urban Life 
   Leaders of Learning
   Introduction to Negotiation: A Strategic Playbook for Becoming a Principled and Persuasive Negotiator
   Improving Communication Skills
   Find Your Calling: Career Transition Principles for Returning Veterans

チームでできること

1. 文献リストの更新（4年生の秋～冬で救われる）
2. Slack活用
3. 楽しくやる！（イメージ）

- カレンダー（2020年度は予定通りにいかないだろうけど）

4月　Slackで指示します（4年報告、3年上野本確認）

5月　新歓(if possible)、3年上野本確認・発表

6月　合宿(if possible)、研究方法の実践、ゲスト、他ゼミ交流

7月　4年構想発表・目的確定*、3年研究計画書作成

*卒論執筆者はドラフト2万字を、専論は文献レビューを完成

8月　研究実施（例：文献調査、フィールドワーク、質問紙調査）

9月　研究実施（同上）

10月　4年卒論目次・方法、3年文献リスト、オープンゼミ

11月　4年卒論執筆合宿on campus、3年「My Q」構想

12月　4年卒論最終版完成、3年研究計画書完成

1月　4年卒論提出、3年研究と就活の準備

2月　3年就活準備と卒論研究の調整

3月　卒業式

- 情報源

「先行研究が無い！」と嘆く前に、上智大学OPACとCiNiiで。Google Scholar も！「丸山文庫」も共有します

Publications Office of the European Union 

UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS)

World Bank Education

UNICEF Office of Research-Innocenti 

OECD Education , OECD Well-Being

Statistics Estonia , Estonia Ministry of Ed & Res

MIPEX

II. 語学：日本語と英語＋1

- 日本語で書く

1. スマホまたはパソコンで、My Qネタで主語と述語がつながるツイッター140字を書き続ける。ネタは、文献調査やフィールドワークから。
2. ツイートの一部から「メモ」を作っていく。来月の自分に向けて書くつもりで。データ保存はオンラインで同期させる
3. 卒論の目次を更新・「メモ」の挿入を繰り返す。

- 英語で読む・発信する

• 「丸山文庫」と情報源からダウンロードしたMy Qにかかわる内容を精読する。内容は時にツイート
• 先行研究の位置関係を図示する 
• 次の本を毎日読んで練習する。論理的に書くとは、どういうことか理解できるハズ。

ネイティブが教える 日本人研究者のための論文の書き方・アクセプト術 (KS科学一般書)

- もう一つの言語（複言語主義で） 

• 日本語と英語以外の言語を一つでも学ぶ。母語も上手になる 
• 言葉をツールに終わらせず、その背景と生きる人たちの理解を試みる
• 選ぶのは、オンライン対応が無いマイナー言語が良い。人間にしか出来ないことを

III. 生涯学習の助走

ゼミに所属するまで激動の20年を過ごしてきたと思います。学部を卒業するまでの2年でさらに激動でしょう。それでも、卒業してから60年以上もの時間があるとしたら、どういう過ごし方をしますか？「My Q」が自分の生涯をかけて追いかけるものになればいいですね。

改めて、2020年度、楽しくマジにやっていこう！

2020年度「丸山ゼミ」に所属する学生へ #Slack でゼミ

（本エントリーはゼミ生にメールとSlackで送っています。他ゼミの参考までに）

丸山ゼミでは、連絡、内容、情報交換などのため、オンラインのワークスペース「Slack」を使います。以下、手順をお知らせしますので、早めに登録しておいてください。（特に、2020年度は新学期開始が遅いため、オンラインでもゼミを行います）

目次

0. ゼミ用のメールアドレスを準備する

1）Gmailをオススメ（ゼミでGoogle Driveを使うため）
2）受信メールを一元化したいなら、Gmailの自動転送を使うこと

1. スマホなどにアプリをダウンロードする

iOS 版 Slack
http://bit.ly/2SEQFhX
Android 版 Slack
http://bit.ly/2ZcrCW3

2. 「丸山ゼミ2020」へ登録する

次のURLへアクセスし、ワークスペースへ参加。
https://hogehoge.slack.com（←ダミーです）

3. 自分の設定をする

1）登録は「学年名前name」で（例：4丸山英樹hideki）。
2）顔が分かるプロフィール写真を入れて
3）自分の学年のチャネルに登録（例：3年生なら「03_3年生」へ）。

4. その他

1）ゼミ連絡等はすべてSlackで流れます。「読んでませんでした」は通用しませんので、気をつけて。
2）チャネル（グループ）作成、DM交換など自由に活用してください。

3）なお、チャネルは次の通り設置しています：

00_事務連絡：用途・目的そのまま

01_卒論：4年が中心で、卒論ドラフトもPDFでここへアップ、共通部分は相互参照する

02_ゼミ発表：3年が中心で、毎週のゼミ発表内容やリンクなどをアップ、フィードバックも

03_3年生：3年が所属し、教員は所属しない

04_4年生：4年が所属し、教員は所属しない

05_交流会：新歓、忘年会、送別会、他大学・他ゼミとの交流など担当者が

06_合宿：研究合宿の企画調整など担当者が

09_FYI：国際協力などのイベント情報

10_運営：ゼミ長、副ゼミ長、教員がゼミ運営など

99_雑談：フリートーク

5. 参考情報

初めてのSlackなら、公式サイトの解説をどうぞ。

slack.com

紙の本が必要な方には、次のような書籍も役立つかもしれません。 

「明日からSlackを使って」と言われたら読む本

はじめてみようSlack 使いこなすための31のヒント

Sterling & Huckle eds. (1996). #EducationForSustainability #ESD

For better SPSF, a key book summary

Sterling, S. & Huckle, J.eds.(1996=2014).Education for Sustainability, London: Routledge. 

(Note: Ch 16 was added in 2014, others were in 1996)

Education for Sustainability (English Edition)

One point is to do with labels. While the label ‘education for sustainable development’ has gained wide currency since the Decade was first proposed at the Johannesburg Earth Summit in 2002, we still prefer to use education for sustainability (EfS). In our view ESD has become too strongly associated with reformist and often idealist discourse that seeks a greener and fairer version of ‘business of usual’. (Loc:389)

Ch 16: Education for Sustainable Citizenship: An Emerging Focus for Education for Sustainability, John Huckle

In 2014 there is little evidence that British society has developed to become more sustainable or that education is enabling all learners to ‘develop the skills, knowledge and value base to be active citizens in creating a more sustainable society’ (DfES, 2003: 7,DfES (Department for Education and Skills) (2003) ‘Sustainable Development Action Plan for Education and Skills’, DfES, London ). The concept of sustainable development is now more widely recognized and debated; some businesses have turned sustainability to their advantage by ‘greening’ their operations; governments have adopted strategies for sustainable development that involve the ‘greening’ of policy; educational institutions at all levels have ‘greened’ their curricula, campuses and links with the wider community; and numerous civil society organizations continue to advocate sustainability in different forms and to demonstrate what it might look like in practice. Much of this activity is welcome and worthwhile, but it does not amount to a breakthrough to sustainability (pp.228-229). 

Education for Sustainable Citizenship

It requires citizens to exercise responsibilities to distant people and places and past and future generations, and to commit themselves to ecologism to the extent that they are required to exercise care or stewardship for non-human nature (p.232).

Box 16.2: The sustainability (sustainable) citizen:

1. believes that sustainability is a common good that will not be achieved by the pursuit of individual self-interest alone;
2. is moved by other-regarding motivations as well as self-interested ones;
3. believes that ethical and moral knowledge is as important as technoscientific knowledge in the context of pro-sustainability behaviour change;
4. believes that other people’s sustainability rights engender environmental responsibilities which the sustainability citizen should redeem;
5. believes that these responsibilities are due not only to one’s neighbours or fellow nationals but also to strangers distant in space and even in time;
6. has an awareness that private environment-related actions can have public environment-related impacts;
7. believes that market-based solutions alone will not bring about sustainability; the sustainability citizen will therefore recommend social and public action. (Dobson, 2011:10, Dobson, A (2011) Sustainability Citizenship, Greenhouse, London.)

Both Dewey and Freire recognized the central role of such dialogue in education for democracy, with Freire maintaining that it can develop critical consciousness as teachers and students cooperatively reflect on their understandings of the world, recognize ideology and hegemony, and seek ways of validating discourses that appear to offer a more truthful interpretation of reality and the ways in which it might be transformed (Walsh, 2009, Walsh, J. (2009). The Critical Role of Discourse in Education for Democracy’, Journal of Critical Educational Policy Studies, 6 (2) 54–76.).

Critical discourse analysis is a key element of the socially critical pedagogy introduced in Chapter 7 of this text. It has now been combined with a future-orientated ecological politics to create ecopedagogy (Gadotti, 2008; Kahn, 2008, 2010)... Bonnett (2004, Bonnet, M (2004) Retrieving Nature: Education for a Post-Humanist Age, Blackwell, Oxford) argues that such literacy requires a frame of mind that values harmony between society and nature and is open to the aesthetic, spiritual and existence values of nature alongside the economic and scientific. The arts and humanities, together with outdoor education (Moss, 2012; Project Wild Thing, 2013), therefore have key roles in EfS, but it is citizenship education that can encourage reflection and action on those forms of political economy, governance and citizenship that encourage and give expression to sustainability as a frame of mind (pp.233-234).

Table 16.1: Sustainable Citizenship and Its Implications for EfS and Ecopedagogy (p.234)

Future Prospects for ESD & EfS

There is evidence that sustainable schools (Barratt Hacking et al, 2010, Barratt Hacking, E, W Scott and E Lee (2010) Evidence of Impact of Sustainable Schools, Department for Children, Schools and Families, London) and eco-schools (Keep Britain Tidy, 2013) improve the quality of learning and teaching, and a well-developed literature on the stages through which such schools might best develop (Webster and Johnson, 2009, Webster, K and C Johnson (2009) Sense and Sustainability, Terra-Preta, Skipton.) and the role that leadership should play in this process (Scott, 2013, Scott, W (2013) ‘Developing the Sustainable School: Thinking the Issues Through’, The Curriculum Journal, 24 (2) 169–180.)... The potential of school subjects to promote ESD/EfS continues to be explored with texts relating to English, mathematics and geography published in the Teaching Secondary Subjects as if the Planet Matters series (for example Morgan, 2012) and subject associations also offering some support (for example ASE, 2013). There has been much progress since 1996 but, as this chapter has sought to show, too much that passes as ESD lacks political realism and fails to cultivate sustainable citizenship (pp.239-240). 

Ch 1: Realizing Sustainability in Changing Times, John Huckle

...a key function of education for sustainability (EFS) is to help people reflect and act on these meanings and so realize alternative futures in more informed and democratic ways. This chapter promotes such reflection by relating debates about sustainability to the changing nature of modern societies, different political ideologies and utopias, and contemporary environmental politics...Such relations are more or less harmonious and democratic and therefore more or less conducive to ensuring that prevailing forms of political economy (economic production and social reproduction) meet the common interest in human wellbeing and long-term survival. A sustainable political economy will be both ecologically and socially sustainable ... Education for sustainability is one way of encouraging such change (pp.3-4).

The Environment & Development in the Contemporary World

It appeals particularly to a new middle (or service) class that sees its quality of life threatened in an emerging risk society beyond control (Beck, 1992). At the same time the global political order is in flux and the power and legitimacy of the nation state is threatened by growing global integration from above and by pressures for local autonomy from below.

The Ethics & Politics of Sus.

The core contradiction is between sustainable development in its weak and strong modes. In its weak mode it represents an emerging mode of regulation, involving forms of techno-managerialism, via which capital seeks to ensure a continued supply of the means and conditions of production on its own terms while maintaining the support of the majority of voters. In its strong form it represents a revised form of self-reliant community development which sustains people’s livelihoods using appropriate technology. While weak sustainability is supported by liberal and social democratic reformers, green socialist and utopian radicals are more likely to urge stronger interpretations. Both groups draw on appropriate ethics, philosophy and social theory, with the radicals and Utopians employing a range of critical theory provided by green economists, deep, social and socialist ecologists, ecofeminists, spiritual ecologists, postmodern scientists and others. Dobson (1990), Elliott (1993), Jackson (1991), Rees (1990), Martell (1994), Merchant (1992), and Orr (1992) are among those who have explored the contradiction between weak and strong sustainability, which is best understood in terms of contrasting political ideologies. Liberal political ideology supports weak sustainability because it is compatible with free markets, individual property rights and a minimum of state regulation. It gives expression to egocentric values and adopts a consumer-based theory of value in which the value of nature is related to the value people derive from its use. While a minority of liberals suggests that markets alone will correct resource scarcity and respond to demands for a clean environment through such innovations as the greening of consumerism, business and education, the majority regards environmental problems as evidence that consumer values are not adequately expressed in markets (pp. 9-10).

Such holism is likely to involve bioregionalism or the development of societies in harmony with their local habitat or biome. Such societies will be more self- sufficient, cooperative and decentralized, practising direct democracy in ways that allow them to evolve alongside nature (Plant and Plant, 1990) (p.12). 

Ch 2: Education in Change, Stephen Sterling

If it is to fulfill its potential as an agent of change towards a more sustainable society, sufficient attention must be given to education as the subject of change itself. .. A seemingly useful definition like ‘sustainable wellbeing’, which suggests that both the human condition and the condition of the ecosystem are satisfactory and improving, still leaves room for interpretation (p.18).

Towards a Postmodern Education

Fig 2.1: Influences on EfS (p.20)

This raises the enduring question of how far education (particularly formal education which is typically less free to innovate than non-formal) can contribute to radical social change, or whether it is necessarily constrained by an encompassing culture (p. 21). 

Box 2.1: Characteristics of EfS

EfS is:

• Contextual
• Innovative & constructive
• Focused & infusive
• Holistic & human in scale
• Integrative
• Process oriented & empowering rather than product oriented
• Critical
• Balancing
• Systemic & connective
• Ethical
• Purposive
• Inclusive & lifelong

Contemporary Change & Learning

There are encouraging indications that such learning is taking place in many fields, which are reflecting the diversity, integration and holistic approach demanded by sustainability (although the credit for such learning cannot be given to formal education) (p.25). 

Mainstream Ed & Building EfS

Whether the emphasis is on academic or vocational achievement, the current emphasis in the formal sector is on selecting and preparing individuals for an expanding market economy, based on specialization at all levels...The market view of education takes little account of current issues such as endemic unemployment, increasing gaps between rich and poor, population growth, loss of community, impending resource scarcity, the ending of cheap energy and indicators of deteriorating environmental quality, all of which are feeding back into the modernist scenario and making it increasingly unsustainable (pp.26-27). 

Building EFS: Educational Developments & Systemic Theory

Theory and practice in EE has evolved over some 30 years from a rural studies and science base to a complex of emphases that have increasingly stressed aspects of participative, holistic and political education (Sterling, 1992). However, to use Lucas’s (1991) seminal description of forms of environmental education as ‘education in, about and for the environment’, the first two forms still prevail, as they relate to rather than challenge the dominant liberal/progressive and neoclassical education paradigms. Downs (1992) has traced a similar tension between development education ‘about, for and as development’, the latter being the most radical and least practised form. Meanwhile, discussion of EFS has emphasized the meaning and development of education for the environment — corresponding with a reconstructionist and transformative educational paradigm (Fien, 1993, Fien, J. ed. (1993). Environmental Education: A Pathway to Sustainability, Deakin University, Geelong) while Gough (1987) has argued for education with the environment as the key to any ecological educational paradigm (p.28). 

It therefore has links with progressive and learner- centred traditions in education, with holistic views of knowledge and education (Reid, 1986), with global education (Pike and Selby, 1988) and, more recently, with transformative education of the type represented by Joanna Macy (1991) linked with deep ecology. In particular, the systemic ideas of self-organization and balance between... (pp. 31-32).

Towards 'Strong' EfS

Table 2.1: Rough Map of Orientations & Associations (p.33)

Some Suggested Constituents

• Sustainability Values Macleod (1992) lists a number of values associated with ecologically sustainable development that should be reflected in education.

• Personal and Community Values

• Pedagogy The pedagogic approach or strategy should itself be socially sustainable in the sense that it is based on meaningful rather than token empowerment, participation and ownership. Specifically, the action research approach (Elliott, 1991) is the embodiment of both the systemic and socially critical views of pedagogy. The primary aims should be to develop and link systemic and critical thinking and environmental and social action, or in other words, develop ecoliteracy and political literacy for full and active citizenship.

• Curriculum Sustainability suggests that attention should be paid to vertical progression in curriculum and horizontal integration (inter- and trans-disciplinarity). Whereas process is more important than content, and the relation between areas more important than decontextualized studies, sustainability does suggest themes that should be reflected in any general curriculum, whether or not it retains a subject basis. These might include some or all of the following: political education and political ecology; natural history, environmental science, ecology and biodiversity; systems theory and systemic thinking; social relations, conflict resolution, equity and social justice; local and bioregional studies and local distinctiveness; community building and citizenship; global environment and development issues; transpersonal ethics; cultural studies including southern, indigenous, and traditional views; ecological design including aesthetics, perma-culture and sustainable systems; new economics; humanistic psychology and interpersonal relationships; health and the environment; modernity, science and technology; futures studies; and practical capabilities in a number of areas.

• Structures How people, institutions and communities interact — the hidden and operational curriculum — is all important and should engender a sustainability ethos that is both lived and critically reflected upon.

Ch 6: Greening the University, Tany Alabaster & Derek Blair

In old or new universities, however, greening was often heavily dependent on the role of individual champions (p.87). 

Corporate Environmental Responsibility

Figure 6.1: Context of Corporate Environmental Responsibility within the Education Sector.(p.88)

The student declaration recognizes the alarming scale and rate of global environmental degradation and recognizes that students have a vital role to play in four key areas (p.95).:

• as learners, education enables all individuals to make informed decisions about their responsibilities toward their environment and community;
• as consumers, students have significant purchasing power and as such can have a considerable influence on the behaviour of producers and suppliers of both products and of general and financial services;
• as citizens, we will undertake to be proactive in coming together as a responsive global community through common environmental policy initiatives; and
• as members of student organizations, we have power to effect change through our own activities and the activities of those with whom we interact. The student declaration

Greening the Curriculum The critical role of environmental education in producing environmentally responsible students and citizens in the workplace and elsewhere is acknowledged at all levels, and in both formal and non-formal education.

Academic staff are often ideologically resistant to curriculum changes that emanate from outside the bounds of their discipline. Greening is yet another initiative to accommodate in a workplace that has been flooded with others and is subject to major changes in terms of teaching and learning, structures and institutional reforms. Most academics were trained in disciplines before the interdisciplinary environmental agenda assumed such importance. Lack of staff confidence, time and training are real stumbling blocks to greening any curriculum. Perhaps the solutions to these problems can be derived from other initiatives, for example IT...(p.98).

Ch 7: Teacher Education, John Huckle

Top-down, bureaucratic reform threatens to reinforce the irrelevance of schools as ‘modern institutions in a postmodern world’, but there are opportunities to exploit the paradoxes of postmodernity and to develop new kinds of schools, teaching and teachers (Hargreaves, 1994). Here I argue that a new phase of modernization holds both threats and promises for teachers. Though suffering from reduced status, autonomy and reward, they retain their role as potential bearers of critical knowledge and as experts in pedagogy who can help people construct alternative futures (Harris, 1994). Postmodernity offers new technologies for learning and teaching, more flexible and relevant ways of handling the curriculum content, new kinds of theoretical knowledge on which to base their practice, new forms of collaboration and professional development and new ways of remaining responsive in fast-changing times. It offers new structures and cultures of teaching, which lead in empowering and democratic directions and are essential if education for sustainability is to take root and grow (pp.105-106).

Teachers as Transformative Intellectuals

Such teachers will use critical pedagogy (Box 7.1) to work democratically with pupils, colleagues and the local community, and will encourage everyone to see the school as a democratic site where students develop the knowledge, skills and values needed to live more sustainably. 

Box 7.1: Socially critical pedagogy has the following characteristics (p.106):

• learning is active and experiential;
• classroom dialogue introduces elements of critical theory and encourages pupils to think critically;
• pupils begin to see themselves, their histories and futures in new ways. They develop a sense of their own power to shape their lives;
• ‘values’ education develops comprehension of the sources of beliefs and values, how they are transmitted and the interests they support;
• pupils reflect on the structural and ideological forces that influence and restrict their lives and on democratic alternatives; and
• pupils are taught how to act democratically with others to build a new social order.

The Critical Theory of Jürgen Habermas

... It leads to universal knowledge and values, serves to validate critical theory and may be described as praxis or participative action research. This provides EFS with a process for the development of pedagogy, curricula, teachers as transformative intellectuals and sustainable communities. .. Teaching and teacher education for sustainability should be a process of communicative rather than strategic action. Teachers should learn through critical pedagogy in universities, school classrooms and the community and should thereby develop skills in planning and delivering a wide range of experiential and democratic teaching and learning activities of the type now used in moral, social, developmental and environmental education (Smith, 1991). .. Finally, in his discussion of the colonization of the lifeworld (that set of background assumptions that guides everyday conduct and allows communicative action) Habermas explains that money, political power and ‘expert systems’ have become the main steering mechanisms of late modern societies. 

Habermas and a Critical Teacher Education for Sustainability

Following the application of Habermas’s ideas to a critical theory of education (Carr and Kemmis, 1986; Gibson, 1986; Grundy, 1987; Young, 1989; Ewert, 1991), Australians took the lead in applying them to environmental education. Robottom (1987) suggested that professional development should be based on action research in order to close the gaps between ... A teacher education officer was appointed in 1991 and he invited a team of writers to prepare an in-service education programme Reaching Out: Education for Sustainability which was published in 1995 (Huckle et al, 1995). Like the course developments in Australia, it is strongly based on critical theory and action research. Reaching Out consists of a set of workshop materials in three parts, which make up a comprehensive course in the theory and practice of EFS (p.111). [HM added: UNU-IAS 2014]

Ch 9: Community-Based Learning, Geoff Fagan

Education Beyond Schooling

Education appropriate to Agenda 21 is not neutral. It is steeped in the politics of justice and equality. .. But this approach poses a problem for education. It asks educators to assume a role radically different to that of a teacher. It seeks a new contract with parents and young people; it insists on new definitions of knowledge and links knowledge to application. It accepts that local people, parents and young people are perfectly capable of enabling their own learning given help and support in doing so. It seeks a change in power between the learner and the learned and in the acceptance of what knowledge might be, how it is generated and how it is endorsed. It challenges the notion that knowledge belongs to the intellectually rich, that local people are wrong until proved right and that learning is the domain of an educational hierarchy. This redefinition is at the core of Agenda 21 (pp.136-137). 

Ownership, Empowerment & Action

‘Sustainability’ appeals to basic values of justice, fairness and equality... ‘What they must have in common to form a community or society are aims, beliefs, aspirations, knowledge — a common understanding’ (Dewey, 1916). .. Clearly, education has to address both behaviour and core values. It has to enhance future security. It has to be recognized as a process that helps alleviate community concerns. This means that education has to spring from local people: their values, aspirations and beliefs. It has to be both real and active. And it has to promote ‘ownership’ and ‘empowerment’ (p.138). 

Education for Sustainability

What does this mean, for sustainability? Sustainability education must be linked to the reality of its clients; it must marry action to intellect; it cannot and must not allow any one section of education to invade and persuade local people that to think ‘about’ is a fair exchange for thinking about and taking action  (p.139). 

Ch 13: Developing Strategy, Stephen Sterling

How we get from the periphery to the centre, from a state of poor EFS to universal richness of thinking and practice, is inevitably a question of strategy... this chapter focuses directly on the meaning of strategy... (p.197). 

Instructive & Constructive Strategies

Two different approaches to strategy, which are partly complementary and partly contesting, may be characterized by the following models (pp.199-200):

Strategy I: "instructive" This approach might be termed ‘education about sustainability’. The first approach is essentially technocratic and transmissive, centring on awareness and behavioural change, and is most commonly associated with a top-down process with intended and preconceived outcomes.

Strategy II: "constructive"  The emphasis is on capability and confidence-building, participation, ownership, empowerment and the generation of meaning (such as local sustainability indicators)... The process is inherently flexible and integrative. The role of the centre is facilitation ... This approach is ‘education for sustainability’, or more radically perhaps ‘education as sustainability’. The latter is essentially participative and transformative, centering on capacity building and self-organization and determination, and is most commonly enacted through a bottom-up process. 

However, it should be stressed that these models are not entirely exclusive in practice, that they can be understood as two ends of a spectrum of practice and that elements of both may often be observed in strategies at different levels... Differences between these approaches remind us to use key words such as ‘strategy’, ‘empowerment’ and ‘participation’ with care and to be critical about how language is employed, wittingly or not, for different ends (p.201). 

Strategy Building

Essentially, strategy is about reducing the uncertainty of attaining an agreed goal. Done well, it can(p.202):

• identify needs;
• clarify objectives and build consensus;
• relate educational work to other policy areas; promote communication and cooperation between actors;
• build on existing work, reduce duplication and increase synergy; and
• allow progress to be monitored and evaluated.

One of the myths surrounding strategy theory is that it is abstruse. On the contrary, the principles are simple, and revolve around four key questions:

• Where are we now? (assessment);
• Where do we want to be? (objectives);
• How do we get there? (implementation); and
• How do we know we are getting there? (evaluation).

... ‘The objectives determine the participants and the participants determine the objectives’ (Carew-Reid et al, 1994). The emphasis therefore should be on process, on strategy and capacity building and on gaining a broad mandate, rather than exclusively on a product such as writing a strategy document (p.203).

There are two spectra which define the style of any strategy (see Figure 13.1):    

Heavy — detailed, directive, versus Light — outlined, flexible;

Top-down — written and disseminated by elite group, versus Bottom-up — generated by local groups(pp.203-204).

Conclusion

The problem, as Pretty (1995, Pretty, J (1995) The Many Interpretations of Participation’, Tourism in Focus, 16 (summer issue), Tourism Concern, London) suggests, is that authorities both need and fear people’s participation. Strategy I responses by authorities must increasingly shift towards encouraging and facilitating Strategy II approaches at local levels to allow the growth of deeper, flexible and owned change, to allow real ‘stakeholding’. ..The sustainable society, by definition, will be a learning society (p.210).

Corcoran & Wals eds (2007) HE and the challenge of #Sustainability

For better SPSF, a key book summary

Higher Education and the Challenge of Sustainability (CERC Studies in Comparative Education) (p. 3). Springer Netherlands.

Higher Education and the Challenge of Sustainability: Problematics, Promise, and Practice (CERC Studies in Comparative Education) (English Edition)

Foreword

Definitions os sustainability or SD are contested, but most agree they involve recalibrating economic and social policies and practices to support economy, ecology, and equity...The major problem for HE is that it is almost impossible to create a sus. univ. in an unsustainable society (Loc.305).

Ch 2: The Evolution of Sustainability Declarations in Higher Education, Tarah Wright

The notion of sustainability in HE was first introduced at an international level by UNESCO-UNEP International Environmental Education Programme in 1978. .. Stockholm Declaration called for EE for all...The Tbilisi Declaration was the result of the UNESCO/UNEP Intergovernmental Conference on EE in 1977. It stated that in order for people to develop a better understanding of the human-environment relationship, formal and non-formal environmental education opportunities should be made available to people of all ages and level of academic aptitude... T.D. asked universities to consider the development of environmental curricula, engage faculty and staff in the development of environmental awareness, provide specialist training, engage in international and regional co-operative projects, and inform and educate the public regarding environmental issues... T.D. chapt.36 ... posited that formal and informal education was the solution to environmentally unsustainable behavior amongst humans (p.7-8)

Table 2. Common principles of Sustainability in Higher Education Declarations

(p.13)

Brubacher (1982) suggests two philosophies underlying the functions of the modern university.

1) The first is epistemological in nature and states that the university’s purpose is to answer the great questions of human existence. According to this philosophy, universities seek only knowledge and truth.

2) Alternatively, the political philosophy of education states that universities not only seek knowledge, but also apply knowledge in order to solve the complex problems of society.(pp.13-14). 

Ch 3: Sustainability as Emergence: The Need for Engaged Discourse, Richard Bawden

Our focus therefore needs to shift from a ‘techocentricity’ with ‘egocentric’ overtones, to a holocentric systemic one. We need to seek not just the self-gratification of the good life, but what Prozesky, M. (1999). The Quest for Inclusive Well-being: Ground work for an ethical renaissance. Inaugural lecture. Pietermaritzberg, South Africa: University of Natal.) has referred to as “inclusive well-being”, and in order to do that effectively, he argues, we need nothing less than “an ethical renaissance”...The reference to systems paradigms here is of considerable significance, for it is the ‘systems logic’ of the ‘whole being different (if not greater) than the sum of its parts’, that gives power to the very notion of ‘emergence’. To the systemist, unpredictable and novel properties emerge whenever different sub-systems are allowed to mutually associate, both within systems, and between different ‘levels’ within the nested hierarchies in which they are presumed to exist.(p. 25).

These two matters, (i) of meaning clarification of morality, and (ii) of the practice of moral discourse, indicate at least two vital roles that the academy can assume with respect to re-engaging with civil society in the context of ‘sustainability’ which can be construed as one of Boyer’s pressing problems of the day. In this regard it might prove useful to explore aspects of what Boyer (1996) referred to as the Scholarship of Engagement in reference to his proposition that the (American) academy must become a much more rigorous partner in the search for answers to such problems. 

1) In the first place, in what I might refer to as first order of engagement, there is the need to find ways of reintegrating the ethical with the scientific into paradigms or systems of inquiry that permit the expression of a true synergy of ways of knowing and appreciation...“Either the university of the future will take hold of the connection between knowledge and human values, or it will sink quietly and indiscriminately into the non-committal moral stupor of the rest of the knowledge industry.” Knowing becomes valuing becomes knowing!

2) Secondly, there is a need to develop strategies for collective inquiry that embrace both instrumental and practical rationalities into a praxis of collaboration between ‘experts’ and ‘lay people’ that allows the development of a democratic discourse appropriate to addressing the question of what it is that ought to be done next in the quest for ‘sustainability’.(p. 28).

Not that the alternative of communal discourse is easy. Bryan Wynne is among those who have written tellingly about the difficulties associated with the expert-lay knowledge divide, and how it might best be treated. There is for instance the very matter of reactions to the legitimacy of ‘lay’ knowledge. “(p. 29).

Ch 4: Critical Realism: A Philosophical Framework for Higher Education for Sustainability, John Huckle

This chapter argues that the key requirement of institutions and courses that seek to educate for sustainability is a philosophy of knowledge that integrates the natural and social sciences and the humanities, accommodates local knowledge, supports critical pedagogy, and continues to regard education as a form of enlightenment linked to a vision of more sustainable futures... Dickens (1996) argues that HEfS requires a unified science that can explain how social processes as understood by the social sciences combine with ecological and biophysical processes as understood by the physical and natural sciences. (p. 34). 

Interdisciplinarity

Jones and Merritt (1999) draw on reports from the Higher Education Funding Council to suggest a dearth of interdisciplinarity in contemporary British environmental higher education. Like Introductions to the Environment most courses are multidisciplinary rather than interdisciplinary, juxtaposing knowledge in often unrelated parts rather than realising a genuine integration of disciplines. Interdisciplinarity challenges academics to reconcile ideas about the nature of reality, how that reality can be known, and what procedures should guide enquiry (ontology, epistemology, and methodology) and we will see that critical realism offers a philosophical framework for accommodating different knowledge claims. It is particularly relevant for HEfS which focuses on an ambiguous and contested concept (Bourke & Meppem, 2000; Sachs, 1997) and where knowledge (in such areas as climate change or the impact of genetically modified organisms) is often uncertain and provisional in nature. (p.35).

Local knowledge & Citizen science

Tacit knowledge is that which cannot be easily described or encoded in the form of words, written documents or other impersonal means, while lay knowledge is popular, commonsense knowledge that may enable people to live sustainably with one another and the rest of local nature. New information technologies such as the internet allow people to link abstract and local knowledge in new ways and so provide for a critical postmodern pedagogy (Castells et al., 1999). Universities can clearly assist in developing citizen science, use postmodern pedagogy, and so help to empower their students and the wider community with new ideas and outlooks. (p. 36).

Dialectical materialism

Hartmann (1998) (Hartmann, F. (1998). Towards a Social Ecological Politics of Sustainability. In: Keil, R., Bell, D., Pentz, P. & Fawcett, L. (Eds.) (1998). Political Ecology: global and local. London: Routledge.)reminds us that ideas about sustainable development are inevitably contradictory since its advocates have different values and interests and wish to sustain different sets of ecological, environmental and social relations. Attention to all three sets of relations leads him to suggest that maintaining the metabolism between bio-physical and social systems in ethically and politically acceptable ways, involves sustaining:

1) Relations among humans (social relations) based on mutual respect and tolerance. Just relations allow equitable access to food, clothing, health care, shelter and meaningful work, provide for freedom of thought and mental development, and promote democratically determined political and economic decisions.

2) Relations among humans and other species (environmental relations) that minimize human domination of and impact on other species and their environments or habitats.

3) Relations among organisms and their environment (ecological relations) which have created the climate, hydrological cycle, radioactive levels, and other environmental conditions (ecological processes) that we have experienced throughout most of human history. Creating and maintaining these relations requires us to care

Postmodern environmentalism

The related challenge for HEfS is to ensure that its critical pedagogy is also a constructivist pedagogy (Janse van Rensburg, E., Lotz, H., Du Toit, D., Mhoney, K. & Oliver C. (2000). Learning for Sustainability: an environmental education professional development case study informing education policy and practice. Johannesburg: Learning for Sustainability Project) that builds upon student’s existing knowledge and interests, accommodates lay and tacit knowledge, and acknowledges how power is wielded through language and discourse. By engaging with cultural politics, marginalized voices, and texts of all kinds, such pedagogy can reinvigorate the modern vision of education as enlightenment (Parker, 1997). Risk society produces a new generation of youth between the borders of a modern world of certainty and order informed by the culture of the West and its technology of print, and a postmodern world of hybridised identities, electronic technologies, local cultural practices, and pluralized public spaces.(p. 44). 

Ch 5: Higher Education, Sustainability, and the Role of Systemic Learning, Stephen Sterling

This chapter argues that sustainability implies a double learning challenge to higher education, concerning both ‘paradigm’ and ‘provision’. The possibility of reorientation of higher education in the context of sustainability depends on widespread and deep learning within the higher education community...Whilst discussion often centres on this latter aspect, which may be called ‘education for change'

The emergent postmodern ecological paradigm suggests a change of epistemology, from reductionism towards holism, from objectivism towards critical subjectivity, and from relativism to relationalism. .. how do we work towards transformative learning in a system that itself is intended to be a prime agency of learning? There is a double problem here:

1) HE institutions are not primarily reflexive learning systems but teaching and research systems. 

2) HE is not primarily engaged in the provision of deep learning to students, but in first-order learning: the transmission of information and the development of instrumental skills aligned (increasingly) to the perceived needs of the economy.

Sustainability, nesting systems & systems failure

...a systems view of sustainability...is seen as a qualitative condition or emergent property arising from the relationships involved in any system whether considered at local level or global level, and demonstrating the survival, the security, and the well-being of 'the whole system'. So if we regard a set of relationships as a 'system' ... then the health of any such system depends on the health of its subsystems, and they on their subsystems and so on. Sustainability is the ability of a system to sustain itself in relation to its environment, given that all systems are made up of subsystems and parts of larger meta-systems. (p.51)

Figure 1. Nesting systems, starting from the centre, it is possible to regard any educational systems as a subsystem of wider society... the purpose or objectives of HE largely fail to take into account sustainability, while undesirable side-effects include widespread ecological illiteracy and its consequences (Orr 1994; Jucker 2002)... whether we can see the economy as part of the environment, rather than the environment as part of the economy. (p.53)

David Orr states that much of what is wrong with the world is not a result of a deficit of education but is the continuing legacy of a kind of education... This is not so much... a crisis in education of the sort that occupies politicians and editorial writers, as a crisis of education, which is far less noticed. This bigger crisis begs the most central of questions which concerns the purpose of education, and by association, the purpose of any institution and learning programme.

a profound paradox: the agency that is charged with the provision of education and learning ... is largely part of the unsustainability problem it needs to address. The fundamental challenge then, is how to achieve significant rather than superficial orientation of HE, and this calls for a theory of learning which can help clarify the nature and possibility of the required change. 

Learning Levels

Using systems terms, learning can be seen as having two aspects - self-correction and meaning-making in response to a change in the system's environment. Such learning can serve either to keep a system stable, or enable it to change to a new state in relation to its environment. (p.54)

These two types of learning are variously described as:

• single-loop & double-loop learning (Argyris & Schon 1996): single-loop doest not normally impinge on or change the values of the learner, the educator, the educational institution, or indeed society. Double-loop learning/second-order change is deeper learning where change tends to be characterised by positive feedback loops between the system and its environment, whereby both attain a new state (Banathy 1992)
• adaptive & generative learning (O'Connor & McDermott 1997) : The first level of learning is limited response to change in the system's environment. It keeps the system and its 'theory-in-use' stable. 
• basic & meta-learning (Bawden 1997a)
• first order & second order change (Ison & Russell 2000): first order learning and change are akin to what Clark (2998, p.236) calls 'change within changelessness', and is often geared towards effectiveness and efficiency - 'doing things better', rather than 'doing better things'.

Beyond first and second order change, systems thinkers ... recognise a third learning level which is described as transformative learning or epistemic learning. ... According to Wenger (1998, p. 226) ‘learning changes who we are by changing our ability to participate, to belong, to negotiate meaning’. Transformative learning does this to an unusual degree. It engages and involves the whole person, and affects change in deep levels of values and belief through a process of re-perception and re-cognition. (pp. 55-56).

Table 1. Three learnig levels summarised: 

1. basic learning: learning, thinking, knowing - doing things better
2. meta-learning: learning about learning... - doing better things
3. epistemic learning: learning about learning about learning... - seeing things differently

Learning Responses in Education & in Wider Society, Response Levels in Ed.

The Politics of Agenda 21 in Europe (1998), these authors suggest that a four-stage shift in the transition to sustainability is necessary, from ‘very weak sustainability’ to ‘very strong sustainability’, characterised by changes in environmental and economic policies, and in degrees and types of public awareness, with the last phase involving:

​– ​much closer integration between environmental and economic policy; ​

– ​a cultural shift in public awareness; and a ​

– ​renewal of emphasis on local democracy and activity (p.57).

Table 2. Staged learning responses to the challenge of sus. (Types of response, Resultant change, Type of learning, & state of ed as follows:) (pp.57-60)

1. No response: No change, Denial/ignorance (no learning), No change- Very weak
2. Accommodation: Green gloss, Adaptive, Cosmetic reform, Ed about sus. - Weak 
3. Reformation: Serious reform, Critically reflective adaptation, Serious greening, Ed for sus. - Strong
4. Transformation: Whole system redesign, Transformative, Wholly integrative, Sus.Ed. - Very strong

At a deeper level still, the response of education may be transformative. The shift here is towards ‘learning as change’ which engages the whole person and the whole learning institution, whereby the meaning of sustainable living is continually explored and negotiated. There is a keen sense of emergence and ability to work with ambiguity and uncertainty. Space and time are valued, to allow creativity, imagination, and cooperative learning to flourish. Inter- and transdisciplinarity are common, there is an emphasis on real-life issues, and the boundaries between institution and community are fluid. 

Whole Systems Change

Fundamentally, this means a shift from the machine metaphor that informs prevailing views of educational management and the learning process towards a view of the institution as a living system and learning organisation (Senge in De Geus, 1997) (p.62). 

Table 5. The general shifts summarized towards sus. institutions(pp. 66-67): 

• Incoherence and fragmentation ->  Systemic coherence and positive synergy
• Large scale, loss of connectivity ->  Human scale, high connectivity
• Closed community ->  Open, ‘permeable’ community
• Teaching organisation ->  Learning organisation
• Microcosm of unsustainable society ->  Microcosm (as far as possible) of sustainable society Again, using a systems

the meaning of the ‘learning society’ becomes much more than one which learns new skills, but one which is better able to understand itself. The initial driving forces in this process may be less to do with education (that is, the effects of ‘education for change’), than increasing awareness in society — and therefore, amongst some actors in education — of deep systemic crisis in the ecological suprasystem and in our relationship with it.

Ch 6: Assessing Sustainability: Criteria, Tools, and Implications, Michael Shriberg

Defining and assessing sustainability across campuses has proven to be difficult, due in large part to the ambiguities involving in operationalizing and standardizing environmental and social principles. Therefore, many administrators as well as advocates question the wisdom of investing in a cross-institutional sustainability assessment (pp. 71-72).

Simply put, campuses require methods of comparison to each other as well as to a vision of a “sustainable college or university” to ensure and affirm that they are moving in the right (or wrong) direction. The concept that Onisto (1999, p. 37) outlines for the economy as a whole applies to institutions of higher education: “Without a measure and value attached for the rates at which an economy consumes nature, there is no possibility for the market to act in any other interest than economic.”

Criteria

Orr, as quoted by the Penn State Green Destiny Council (2000, p. 4), proposes five criteria to rank campus sustainability:

1. What quantity of material goods does the college/university consume on a per capita basis?
2. What are the university/college management policies for materials, waste, recycling, purchasing, landscaping, energy use, and building?
3. Does the curriculum engender ecological literacy?
4. Do university/college finances help build sustainable regional economies?
5. What do the graduates do in the world?

These questions, although difficult to quantify and answer, do not “tinker around the edges”, as is the tendency of many environmental assessments; they deal with core issues of ecologically, socially and fiscally sustaining a society and campus... The difference is of mindset in promoting incremental (i.e. eco-efficient) or systemic (i.e. sustainable) change; eco-efficiency ends with the incremental while sustainability incorporates both approaches (p.73).

Since “sustainability is a process, not a destination” (Bandy II, G. (1998). Sustainability Booklet. Houston, TX: The University of Texas-Houston Health Sciences Center. Campus Consortium), the tools to measure sustainability must delve deep into decision-making by asking about mission, rewards, incentives and other process-oriented outcomes. .. Campuses need quick, yet penetrating ways to measure status, progress, priorities and direction. Therefore, the ability to calculate and compare progress toward sustainability is often a limiting factor in assessment. However, assessment tools need not be exclusively quantitative. In fact, quantitative tools in isolation have little chance of fully expressing progress toward sustainability since there is no well-defined “sustainable campus” upon which to base measures. On the other hand, qualitative data must be collected and analyzed in a manner that allows for cross-campus comparisons. The key is to find measurement methods that are flexible enough to capture organizational complexities and differences, yet specific enough to be calculable and comparable. Perhaps most importantly, sustainability assessment tools must be comprehensible to a broad range of stakeholders...The ecological footprint (Wackernagel & Rees, 1996) is a positive example.

Table 1. Evaluation of Campus Sus. Assessment Tools

In addition to lessons about sustainability measurement, cross-institutional assessment tools provide valuable insight into essential attributes of sustainability in higher education through their structure and content. An analysis of included and excluded factors reveals the following parameters (pp.82-83):

1. Decreased consumption/throughput
2. Centrality of sus. ed.
3. Cross-functional integration
4. Cross-institutional integration
5. Incremental & systemic progress

A second major question/challenge for the future is: Should analysts numerically rank and publicly report on college and university progress toward sustainability? (p.84).

Ch 7: The Problematics of Sustainability in Higher Education: A Synthesis, Peter Blaze Corcoran and Arjen E. J. Wals

Dobson’s research showed that in the mid-nineties three hundred definitions for sustainability and sustainable development were available, up from just a few in the late eighties (Dobson, 1996) (p.87).

Ch 9: Environmental Education for Sustainability: A Force for Change in Higher Education, Daniella Tilbury

.. many of these efforts have focused on actions to minimise the ecological footprints of universities. This is being achieved through reducing levels of energy consumption, opting for more sustainable waste management practices and putting in place environmental managements systems to monitor impacts. A number of these initiatives have also involved students in learning about and/or managing this innovative practice (Campus Earth Summit, 1995; Calvo, Benayas & Guitirrez, 2002). It is now being recognised that a next and more critical step needs to be taken to address sustainability through higher education. This requires educating about and for sustainability through the taught curriculum. Calls to restructure higher education courses towards Environmental Education for Sustainability are being supported by the corporate sector, which seeks graduates with the personal and professional knowledge, skills and experience necessary for contributing to sustainability (pp.97-98).

EE for Sus.

At Johannesburg, UNESCO explicitly recognised the critical role that formal and higher education play in providing opportunities for social learning and change towards sustainable development (UNESCO, 2002 p. 7). Their WSSD document ‘Education for Sustainability.

Sustainable Development is more about new ways of thinking than about science and ecology. While sustainable development involves the natural sciences, policy and economics; it is primarily a matter of culture’ (UNESCO, 2002, p. 8).

Huckle (1997) interprets Habermas’ principal claim to be that interaction has become distorted by the rise of positivism and instrumental reasoning which promotes science as meta-narrative and value-free knowledge... To achieve sustainable development we need critical reflective models which will help learners 'not only think critically but also culturally' (Saul, 2000, p. 8). (pp.99-100).

Participatory Action Research: is a process, rooted in the critical theory paradigm, which engages learners in practical issues of power, politics and participation... Four basic themes underpin action research approaches: i) collaboration through participation; ii) acquisition of knowledge; iii) social change; and iv) empowerment of participants (Hillcoat, 1996)... The goal of the action researcher is to increase the closeness between the actual problems encountered by practitioners in a specific setting and the theory used to explain and resolve the problem. The second goal, which goes beyond the other two approaches, is to assist practitioners in identifying and making explicit fundamental problems by raising their collective consciousness (Holter et al., 1993).

Core Components: The terms ‘critical reflection’, ‘values clarification’ and ‘participative action research’ have become core components of Environmental Education for Sustainability (see Sterling et al., 1992; Fien, J. and Trainer, T. (1993). Education for Sustainability. In: Fien. J. (Ed.). Environmental Education: A Pathway to Sustainability. Geelong: Deakin University Press, pp.11–23.; Gough & Robottom, 1993; Huckle & Sterling, 1996; Huckle, 1997; Robottom, 1987; Fien & Tilbury, 1996; Hesselink et al., 2000; Tilbury, 1993; 2001a; 2001b).

Innovation & Change: the Role of EE for Sus.

...three Environmental Education for Sustainability projects taking place within one university (p.103).

1. a process of learning which enhances generic skills, rather than a content to be taught, Environmental Education for Sustainability is relevant to all fields of learning.

2. Masters in Sustainable Development offered by the Graduate School of the Environment. Through a number of short courses, the program engages students in processes of critical reflection, values clarification and action research...

   In ‘Education for Sustainable Development’ students explore participatory approaches to learning and capacity building.

3. Action Research for Change in Curriculum and Graduate Skills Towards Sustainability — Change in Higher Education

Part TWO

We have taken the position that the multiple meaning of sustainability are not a weakness but a strength. The fact that it is ill-defined allows people to give it their own meaning as is appropriate for their own context. The process of giving meaning within a context is meaningful learning. Clearly there are different imaginable educational responses to sustainability.

In Part Two we introduce the reader to a variety of educational responses from the vantage point that a pluralism of perspectives can be a driving force for reaching solutions to sustainability issues in higher education... we present contributions from a variety of perspectives on the role of sustainability in higher education and the role of higher education in society.

Ch 13: Sustainability and Transformative Educational Vision, Edmund O’Sullivan

From the perspective of ‘transformative learning,’ developed in Transformative Learning: Educational Vision for the 21st Century the fundamental educational task of our times is to make the choice for a sustainable planetary habitat of interdependent life forms over and against the pathos of the global competitive marketplace (O’Sullivan, 1999; O’Sullivan, Morrell & O’Connor, 2002) (p.163).  

Transformative Learning: Fostering Educational Vision in the 21st Century

Transformative criticism has three simultaneous moments.(p. 164)

1. The first moment is already described as the critique of the dominant culture’s “formative appropriateness”.
2. The second is a vision of what an alternative might look like to the dominant form.
3. The third moment is some concrete indications of the practical exigencies of how a culture probably could abandon those aspects of its present forms that are “functionally inappropriate” 

Comprehensive Integrity in a Universe Context

Formal education programs cannot fulfill all of these requirements. At the same time, formal education must be transformed so that it can provide an integrating context for total life functioning. At the higher levels of formal education, what is needed are processes of reflection on meaning and values, carried out in a comprehensive context.

The Transformative Learning Centre & Sus. Ed.: The Earth Charter as Foundational Vision

As a result of this marriage of institutions of higher learning with corporate spouses, we are seeing institutions, such as universities compromised, by the market demands and vision of transnational corporate business. Universities today have corporate logo’s laced throughout their premises (p.169).

I avoid using the term ‘sustainable development’ and share many of the criticism that Donald Worster makes of it in his excellent article entitled, ‘The Shaky Ground of Sustainability’(Worster, 1993). We both are circumspect by the economistic orientation of the term in the famous Bruntland Report. (pp.170-171).

1. The first educational challenge is to advance understanding of our shared global problems and the need to act with a sense of universal responsibility.
2. The second is to provide people with a framework for critically evaluating their situation and identifying action goals for bringing about positive change.
3. The third educational challenge is to foster a culture of collaboration that facilitates new partnerships between civil society, business and governments.

However, serious impediments remain. Educational activities associated with “values” remains a contested field because of concern about “which” values and “whose” values are being promoted. These concerns can be allayed so long as the values being examined represent core values that respect human dignity, are life affirming, and are consistent with those of major cultures around the world. However, at the same time, educators must be aware of the need to avoid proselytising, respect the right of individual learners to independently hold values, and understand that within the search for common ground there remain important values associated with cultural diversity.

Ch 16: Disciplinary Explorations of Sustainable Development in Higher Education, Geertje Appel, Irene Dankelman & Kirsten Kuipers

The university board and the faculties spend much of their time dealing with managerial and administrative aspects, while the departments are concerned with the core business of the university: research and education.

The Need for an Intellectual Challenge

A bottleneck for the integration of sustainable development in curricula is the fact that university professionals are not always convinced of the value of integrating sustainability in their courses, or lack the motivation to do so. ( Bras-Klapwijk, R. M. A. de Haan & K.F. Mulder (2000). Training of Lecturers to Integrate Sustainability in the Engineering Curricula. In: Van der Bor, W, Holen, P., Wals, A.E.J. & Filho, W. (Eds.) Integrating Concept of Sustainability into Education for Agriculture and Rural Development. Frankfurt am Mein: Peter Lang Scientific Publishers. Bras-Klapwijk et al., 2000). 

Looking at change processes in general, it is possible to identify four phases (Bullock & Batten, 1985; Burnes, 1992): (1) exploration, (2) planning, (3) action, (4) integration... composing a disciplinary review involves collecting information, communicating and analyzing the situation, and is therefore a first step in integrating sustainable development into curricula (p.216).

Lectures Integrate SD

An initial assumption of the working group was that a top-down approach would be unsuitable in complex organizations such as universities, and that it would be more feasible to start from within a discipline’s own existing processes (pp.217-218). 

Ch 17: The Promise of Sustainability in Higher Education: A Synthesis, Arjen E. J. Wals and Peter Blaze Corcoran

This brings us to the need for facilitated cultivation of pluralism and conflict in order to create space for social learning in moving towards contextual sustainability in higher education. The process of determining how to become sustainable as an institute of higher education as undertaken by a group can be viewed as a particular manifestation of social learning. Social learning here is seen as a collaborative re-framing process involving multiple interest groups or stakeholders (Vandenabeele & Wildemeersch, 1998)... The promotion of sustainability in higher education requires more than consensus in the present, but rather requires a dialogue to continuously shape and reshape ever-changing situations and conditions. A dialogue here requires that stakeholders involved can and want to negotiate as equals in an open communication process which views diversity and conflict as the driving forces for development and social learning (Kunneman, 1996; Wals & Bawden, 2000). As Wals and Heymann (2004) point out elsewhere, such dialogue rarely spontaneously emerges, but requires careful designing and planning. .. Education for sustainability above all means the creation of space for social learning. (pp.223-224).

Part THREE: Practice

19: Education and Sustainable Development in United Kingdom Universities: a Critical Exploration

20: Lighting Many Fires: South Carolina’s Sustainable Universities Initiative

21: Integrating Education for the Environment and Sustainability Into Higher Education at Middlebury College

22: Sustainability in Higher Education Through Distance Learning: The Master of Arts in Environmental Education at Nottingham Trent University

23: The Pedagogy of Place: The Environmental Technology Center at Sonoma State University

24: Developing Sustainability in Higher Education Using Aishe

25: Curriculum Deliberation Amongst Adult Learners in South African Community Contexts at Rhodes University

26: Incorporating Sustainability in the Education of Natural Resource Managers: Curriculum Innovation at the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University of Denmark

EOF

Sophia University's "Programme for Sustainable Futures" Starts as #ESD #SDGs #SustainableFutures

Sophia Program for Sustainable Futures, New English-based Undergraduate Program to Launch in Autumn Semester, 2020

上智大学 「持続可能な未来プログラム」開始

This is the new program offers bachelor's degrees in seven fields of study: journalism, education, sociology, economics, management, international relations, and area studies. The latest introduction video is just released.

Introduction to SPSF - New English-based Undergraduate Program

I have explained the concept of SPSF. Let's make our world a better place!

Concept of SPSF - Why Sustainability?

www.sophia.ac.jp

(In Japanese) 入学案内はこちら

www.sophia.ac.jp